Revista de economía mundial 67, 2024, 243-271

ISSN: 1576-0162

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.33776/rem.vi67.8088

Online COmmuniCatiOn Of SuStainability in the

SOCial eCOnOmy: a COmparative Study

ComuniCaCión online de la SoStenibilidad en la

eConomía SoCial: un eStudio Comparativo

Raquel Puentes-Poyatos

Universidad de Jaén

rpuentes@ujaen.es

Adoración Mozas-Moral

Universidad de Jaén

amozas@ujaen.es

Enrique Bernal Jurado

Universidad de Jaén

ebernal@ujaen.es

Recibido: diciembre 2023; aceptado: abril 2024

abStraCt

Spain is the world leader in olive oil production. The aim of this article is

to analyze the type of non-ﬁnancial information (CSR) that companies in the

sector disseminate on their websites and the factors that explain a greater

online dissemination. The fsQCA methodology is applied. The results indicate

that companies focus on communicating the knowledge generated on aspects

related to food safety and that the dissemination of CSR is affected by factors

such as having a commercial orientation towards the online market, having

channels of interactivity with stakeholders and offering organic/ecological

products.

Keywords: Sustainability, Corporate social responsibility, Olive oil, Online

communication, ICT.

reSumen

España es líder mundial en la producción de aceites de oliva. El objetivo

de este artículo es analizar el tipo de información no ﬁnanciera (RSC) que

difunden en sus sitios webs las empresas del sector y los factores que explican

una mayor difusión online. Se aplica la metodología fsQCA. Los resultados

indican que las empresas se centran en comunicar el conocimiento generado

aspectos vinculados con la seguridad alimentaria y que la difusión de la RSC

se ve afectada por factores como tener una orientación comercial hacia el

mercado online, disponer de canales de interactividad con stakeholders y una

oferta de productos ecológicos.

Palabras clave: Sostenibilidad, Responsabilidad social corporativa, Aceite

de oliva, Comunicación online, TIC.

JEL Classiﬁcation/ Clasiﬁcación JEL: F14, L81, M14, M15, P13, Q01,

Q107, Q56.

Revista de economía mundial 67, 2024, 243-271

1. intrOduCtiOn

In recent decades we have witnessed a change in societal attitudes or

values (Halman et al., 2022), which has been in line with economic growth and

increases in per-capita income (Franzen & Meyer, 2010). Society is increasingly

critical of unethical business practices and their environmental and social

impacts. According to the latest Eurobarometer (2023), concern for the

environment and climate change is one of the top ﬁve concerns for europeans

(31%), along with public health (34%), hence more and more people are willing

to change their habits to limit this impact (Ipsos, 2022). These same concerns

were highlighted in 1987 with the so-called Brundtland Report (United Nations,

1987) which indicated that a new era of economic growth was possible:

“growth that is both forceful and socially and environmentally sustainable”. This

report led in 2000 to the Millennium Development Goals and from 2015 to the

Sustainable Development Goals (hereinafter SDGs) advocated by the United

Nations (hereinafter UN) (2015).

The requirements and challenges of the 21st century suggest the need

for a change in business conception, towards an ethical, socially responsible

and sustainable business and management model. Being socially responsible

means adapting to change, which is the fundamental ingredient for survival

and development in the market (Barroso & Santos, 2014). In this sense,

some studies have found evidence between stakeholder pressure and the

adoption of green organizational practices by companies (Betts et al., 2018).

Consequently, these pressures will have a direct impact on the income

statement and competitiveness (Kim et al., 2018), but only if, on the one hand,

they know how to manage the knowledge generated by these relationships and

turn it into indicators, and on the other hand, they are able to disseminate or

communicate these indicators and the actions generated to respond to these

pressures (Guadamillas & Donante, 2008). Among this knowledge, we can cite

the actions taken by companies to contribute to sustainable development,

such as the implementation of practices to contribute to the SDGs, Corporate

Social Responsibility (hereinafter CSR) and/or Sustainability practices.

Currently, there is a growing stakeholder interest in CSR information (Albitar et

al., 2020). Several studies highlight CSR in order to generate customer loyalty

(Sang, 2022), improve the perceived image of the company (Cui et al., 2018)

and positively inﬂuence reputation (Islam et al., 2021). It is key to disclose

246 Raquel Puentes-Poyatos · Adoración Mozas-Moral · Enrique Bernal Jurado

information on CSR, sustainability or non-ﬁnancial information (different names

have been used to refer to similar content).

The situation outlined here is not alien to the agri-food industry and

therefore, to the olive oil production sector, which is the subject of this study.

As we will detail in the theoretical framework, Spain currently leads the world

production of olive oils. Despite the drought affecting Spain, on average in

the last 5 seasons, it has been the main olive oil producing country with

approximately 42% of the world production and 65% of the European

Union (hereinafter EU) production, according to data from the International

Olive Council (hereinafter IOC) (2022). These data reveal a situation of world

leadership.

On the other hand, cooperatives play a predominant role in the Spanish

olive oil sector. According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food

(hereinafter MAFF) (2022), cooperatives account for 65% of the olive oil

production in Spain. Therefore, to speak of Spanish olive groves is to speak

of cooperative societies (Mozas, 2019). The contribution of Social Economy

(hereinafter SE) organizations to the SDGs, of which cooperatives are the

leading exponents, has not gone unnoticed by the UN, the International Labor

Organization, the EU and other governmental and representative organizations

(Inter-Agency Task Force on Social and Solidarity Economy, 2015; EU, 2021;

International Labor Organization, 2022; UN, 2023).

Despite this leadership, for decades the main problem of virgin olive

oil producers has been their disengagement from the end consumer as a

stakeholder group. The literature points to the importance of undertaking

a change of orientation towards the end market, with digitalization being

identiﬁed as a key factor both at a commercial level (Jorge et al., 2019;

Bernal et al., 2019) as well as for the provision of CSR evidence/indicators

to stakeholders, in order to improve their competitiveness (Tetrault & Lvina,

2019).

This study, applied to the olive sector, focuses on the online dissemination of

non-ﬁnancial or CSR information as a means of communicating to stakeholders

the generation of knowledge in favour of sustainable development. Speciﬁcally,

the objective is to analyze, on the one hand, what CSR knowledge is

communicated on their websites in the form of certiﬁcations and, on the other

hand, which variables or factors explain a higher level of online dissemination

of this knowledge. Speciﬁcally, we analyze the extent to which the type

of company (cooperative or non-cooperative) or greater interactivity with

stakeholders, measured by the existence of blogs, a forum, a complete online

purchasing process and a presence on social networks or other platforms,

contribute to the dissemination of CSR. The fuzzy-set qualitative comparative

analysis (fsQCA) methodology is applied to achieve this objective.

The paper is structured as follows: after this introduction, the contextual

framework detailing the propositions of the study is presented, followed by the

technical characteristics of the research in the methodology section, an analysis

of the results, and ﬁnally the conclusions and bibliographical references.

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2. theOretiCal framewOrk

2.1. impOrtanCe Of the internatiOnalizatiOn Of the Olive SeCtOr

The Spanish leadership in the olive sector is unquestionable. According to

the National Statistics Institute of Spain (2022) there are a total of 420,485

olive grove farms with an average area of 5.86 hectares, which in total

accumulate the largest olive grove in the world with 2,464,420 hectares.

This fact is reﬂected in production. According to the IOC (2023) Spain, on

average in the last 5 seasons, has been the main olive oil producing country

with approximately 42% of the world production and 65% of the production

of the EU, despite the drought that has been affecting Spain in recent years.

Andalusia, a region located in the south of Spain and the subject of our study,

is the ﬁrst olive oil producing Community, with 80.11% of the national total for

the 2020/21 campaign (MAFF, 2023), and 37% of the world total. According

to MAFF (2023), cooperatives represent half of the total number of companies

dedicated to olive oil production in Spain and the rate of cooperativization

(production in cooperatives) is 65%. For the case of the Andalusian Community,

and the same source (MAFF, 2023), cooperatives represent 49% of the

companies but 67% of the production, due mainly to the merger processes

that are being carried out and that generate structures of greater business

size. Therefore, to speak of the Spanish olive grove is to speak of cooperative

societies (Mozas, 2019).

Spain is also the main exporter of olive oils. Over the years, according to the

database of the General Directorate of Customs (Datacomex), it can be seen

that these have been increasing and have doubled in less than two decades.

Italy is the main destination country for our exports, accounting for practically

half of them. The ﬁrst ﬁve countries (Italy, Portugal, France, Germany and the

Netherlands) account for 92% of exports to Europe. Mozas (2022) identiﬁes

the quality preferences of each country according to the types of oil they

purchase. In the case of Europe, 85% of oil consumers prefer virgin oils and

15% olive oils. However, countries such as Italy buy almost 85% virgin and

France 97%. However, America and Asia are two increasingly important areas

of export interest where quality is appreciated (Mozas, 2022). The cooperative

movement is becoming increasingly powerful in exports, either through second-

tier cooperatives such as Jaéncoop SCA, Oleoestepa SCA, or Agrosevilla SCA,

or through trading companies whose capital is controlled by cooperatives such

as Mercaoleo SL, which is the subsidiary of Dcoop SCA (Mozas, 2022).

On the other hand, the olive grove is not only income and employment,

but in the framework of the multifunctionality of agricultural activity. The

olive grove is considered as an agrosystem that provides public goods and

healthy and quality products to the population, which contributes, if properly

cultivated, to the ﬁght against erosion, to the ﬁxation of signiﬁcant amounts of

carbon dioxide (CO2) that help mitigate climate change, to the maintenance

of biodiversity and to the ﬁxation of population in rural areas. Mozas (2019)

248 Raquel Puentes-Poyatos · Adoración Mozas-Moral · Enrique Bernal Jurado

emphasizes the great contribution of the olive sector in general and the olive

cooperative sector in particular to the achievement of the SDGs, so they are

undoubtedly sustainable enterprises.

2.2. COrpOrate SOCial reSpOnSibility and knOwledge management

Under the Stakeholder Theory, CSR ﬁnds a natural ﬁt and can itself become

a source of competitive advantage (Fombrun & Shanley, 1990). This theory

argues that there are more stakeholders involved in the company than just

shareholders, where the objective of the company and, in particular, of the

management, is to serve the interest of all its stakeholders, without whom it

would cease to exist (Freeman, 1984). This same theory serves as a basis for

explaining the close relationship between knowledge management and CSR

(Guadamillas & Donante, 2008).

Knowledge management, deﬁned as a process for creating, acquiring and

capturing, sharing and using knowledge to improve organizational performance

(Scarbrough et al., 1999), is connected to the need to obtain information from

stakeholders and transform it into knowledge. However, as Guadamillas &

Donante (2008) indicate, it is equally necessary to ensure the dissemination

of new knowledge to stakeholders through the generation of a stronger

reputation as an innovative and responsible company. In this sense, Barroso

& Santos (2014) indicate that it will be necessary to identify stakeholders

and establish dialogue with them in order, on the one hand, to obtain the

necessary information that will be converted into knowledge, and on the other

to transfer this knowledge, both internally and externally, through the results

of the activity, including CSR actions.

CSR is an instrument that allows the company to interact with its

stakeholders, to whom it provides the knowledge and technologies it develops

(Werther & Chandler, 2006). The dissemination of CSR knowledge implies

information transparency and results in trust and reputation as a responsible

company (Nieto & Fernández, 2004), and the very dissemination of knowledge

created in ethical terms strengthens the company’s competitive position (Groff

& Jones, 2003). Consequently, a key factor in the success of socially responsible

companies will be their appropriate communication with stakeholders

(Nadanyiova et al. 2020), and in this relationship the choice of media is key.

As Hoştut & Deren van het Hof (2015) point out, the medium used inﬂuences

the perception of CSR, as well as enabling more rational decision-making by

stakeholders (Wanous, 1992).

Several studies on corporate communication show how large companies

communicate their CSR using standards, CSR reports and responsible

branding campaigns (Frandsen et al., 2013; Morsing & Spence, 2019). For

Christensen et al. (2017) and Esposito et al. (2021), external certiﬁcations

or standards are one of the tools that organizations can use to communicate

their CSR practices and have the advantage of offering maximum assurance

by being certiﬁed by third parties. These certiﬁcations and standards improve

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the company’s internationalization capacity by enabling it to compete in

global markets. However, as indicated by Cea-Moure (2019), sustainability

reports and corporate websites are the most common mechanisms for CSR

communication by companies. Consequently, ICTs and websites are a key

means to facilitate the dissemination of knowledge generated in CSR (Chaudhri

& Wang, 2007; Nicoló et al., 2021) and to establish a relationship of dialogue

with stakeholders (Cobelli & Wilkinson, 2020).

2.3 COmmuniCatiOn Of CSr Or nOn-finanCial infOrmatiOn in COOperativeS

The CSR literature has highlighted the growing interest among both

academics and practitioners in the disclosure of CSR information and

speciﬁcally CSR reports or Sustainability reports (hereafter SR) (Singhania

& Gurmani, 2023; Bartoszewicz & Szczepankiewicz, 2022). According to

KPMG (2022) the number of SRs has been growing every year and the rate

of SR ﬁlings, among the N100 (the 100 largest companies in each of the 58

countries analyzed) reached 79% in 2022, a percentage that is expected to

increase as new regulation on SRs is introduced. Europe ranks second at the

regional level, with 82% of its top 100 companies (N100) reporting SRs, with

Spain (93% N100) and Italy (90% N100) among the top ten countries with

the highest percentage of companies reporting SRs according to GRI standards

(KPMG, 2022).

Directive 2014/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council

regarding the disclosure of non-ﬁnancial information and information on

diversity by certain large companies and certain groups (EU, 2014), transposed

in Spain by Law 11/2018 on Non-Financial Information and Diversity, introduced

for the ﬁrst time the obligation to report Non-Financial Information Statements

(hereafter NFIS) or SR. In the ﬁscal year 2022 this obligation was extended to

a greater number of companies due to the update of the scope of application

included in the Law. Now, the EU has admitted new changes with regard to

SR with the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (hereafter CSRD)

(EU, 2022). Thus SRs are no longer an option but rather an obligation for

many companies and are equated to company ﬁnancial reporting. In addition,

sustainability reporting also affects companies within the scope of the value

chain, thus including information on organizations that are not directly bound

by the CSRD. In this regard, KPMG (2022) indicates that large global companies

tend to lead in sustainability reporting and provide a useful trend indicator for

adoption by other companies. Some cooperative laws passed in Spain, such

as Law 11/2019 on Cooperatives in Euskadi and more recently, Law 2/2023 of

the Community of Madrid or Law 4/2022 of the Canary Islands, have already

started to regulate on SR reporting for cooperative societies. Similarly, the

Spanish Association of Accounting and Business Administration (AECA) has

published two technical notes related to the current situation of the NFIS in

Social Economy companies and their obligations regarding its presentation

(Polo, et al., 2021; Castilla-Polo et al., 2022).

250 Raquel Puentes-Poyatos · Adoración Mozas-Moral · Enrique Bernal Jurado

Singhania & Gurmani (2023) conducted a bibliometric analysis (1992-

2022) which shows that research on SR is mostly focused on developing

countries, with a european predominance, on large companies and with the

main research topics being the determinants for dissemination, content and

quality of the reports. However, research focused on SE enterprises and in

particular on cooperative societies is very scarce. Studies on SE have focused

on analyzing the content of SRs in credit cooperatives (Belhourai et al., 2005;

Bollas-Araya & Seguí-Mas, 2014), in agri-food cooperatives (Castilla-Polo et

al., 2015; Pérez-Sanz et al., 2019) and in consumer cooperatives (Sequi-Mas

et al., 2016). Other research has dealt with the level of implementation of CSR

practices in agri-food cooperatives (Pérez et al., 2009; Mozas et al., 2013-

2014; Fernández-Perlines et al., 2020; Richter & Hanf, 2021; Monzón et al.,

2021; Lafont-Torio et al., 2023), in worker cooperatives (Arcas & Briones,

2009) and in consumer cooperatives (Sajardo-Moreno & Chaves-Sajardo,

2017), not focusing on their diffusion as such.

All this research on SEs highlights the low implementation of SR

development by cooperatives and, consequently, their deﬁcit in CSR knowledge

dissemination. More recent studies corroborate the fact that despite the

existence of a greater demand for non-ﬁnancial information by stakeholders,

SE companies are still lagging behind. Sannino et al. (2019) analyzed 42 Italian

banks (cooperative and non-cooperative) to see if there were differences in the

degree of SR disclosure and concluded that cooperative banks had a lower

level of disclosure than other banks. Campillo-Alhama & Igual-Antón (2021)

conducted a study on 28 electric cooperatives that market electricity in Spain

and indicate that 6% of cooperatives communicate their CSR through various

channels and 16% of those disseminate their results or contributions to the

SDGs to their stakeholders through SR, social balance, websites, social networks

and multimedia platforms. Polo & García (2021) conducted a study of 37 of

the most relevant cooperatives in the SE and concluded that only 7 had NFIs,

being parent companies of business groups and not ﬁnding any cooperative in

the agri-food sector. Castilla-Polo et al. (2022) analyze the NFI reports taking

the census of the 100 most relevant cooperatives in Spain, concluding that

the publication of non-ﬁnancial information has not reached the degree of

maturity shown in large companies both nationally and internationally and

52% of the cases have speciﬁc access on their website. Furthermore, as

regards the standards used, the initiatives most widely followed in Spain by

private companies, GRI reports (5%) or UNGC reports (3%), are only marginally

followed.

In short, to the extent that stakeholders are pressing to be informed about

CSR and it is becoming a key element for the competitiveness of companies,

the SE cannot miss out on the use of ICTs to maintain communication

with them and disseminate the knowledge generated on CSR. It is critical

that cooperative enterprises make progress in the preparation of SR and

communicate their responsible performance online. Some studies have begun

to explore the dissemination of CSR through digital media (Carvalho et al.,

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2018; Fait et al., 2019; Esposito et al., 2021; Florensa-Guiu et al., 2023),

although not for cooperative societies. For all the reasons argued so far, this

research aims to contribute to the literature on online disclosure in CSR or

online communication of non-ﬁnancial information, focusing on an under-

studied organizational model such as cooperative societies.

2.4. Study prOpOSitiOnS

Online interactivity with stakeholders

A company’s website has been conﬁgured as the space where many of

the communication processes between the company and its stakeholders take

place and, on many occasions, it will be the ﬁrst reference when it comes to

creating an image of the company (Chen & Macredie, 2005). Although the

characteristics that websites must possess in order to be positively valued

may vary, there is consensus that high levels of information, interactivity

and services are positively related to user satisfaction (Heinze & Hu, 2006).

Compared to static websites, today’s websites must combine informational,

relational and transactional functions associated with online commerce to

ensure a strong online position (Meroño & Arcas, 2006) and improve their

commercial position (Caiazza & Bigliardi, 2020). In sectors such as agri-food,

it has become an attractive sales channel (Vega et al., 2014), enabling a new

way of communicating at low cost (Lin et al., 2020) and improving trust and

interaction with the consumer (Camanzi & Giua, 2020).

Social networks, on the other hand, stand out as close and trusted

communication channels that allow sharing information about the differential

attributes of products in the way they are produced, as well as about the

experiences of their consumption, adding value and differentiating them in

increasingly competitive markets. Indeed, the intrinsic characteristics of

certain ‘experiential’ agricultural products make them particularly suitable

for marketing through online social networks (Stricker et al., 2007). Canavari

et al. (2002) indicate that the purchase and consumption of products such

as oil or wine are based on an intense exchange of information referring not

only to tangible aspects of the product but also to others such as symbols,

tradition, culture, tourism, production methods or gastronomy, which can

signiﬁcantly improve the consumer’s perception of value. Similarly, authors

such as Hung et al. (2011) have argued that due to the more personal nature

of information exchange and its indirect mode of communication, based

on word of mouth, social networks are more credible tools than others for

providing “green information”. In this sense, for some consumers olive oil is part

of their ‘green consumption’ shopping basket, seen as less polluting and more

environmentally friendly (Calomarde, 2000).

Consequently, the more interactivity and services a website has the

more information it must also have, so that it is positively valued by its users

and can constitute a source of competitive advantage for companies in the

252 Raquel Puentes-Poyatos · Adoración Mozas-Moral · Enrique Bernal Jurado

development of their commercial activity. Consequently, our ﬁrst propositions

will be the following:

Proposition 1. Companies with an online market orientation (complete

online purchasing process) have a higher online dissemination of the knowledge

generated on CSR.

Proposition 2. Companies with online interactivity with stakeholders,

through blogs, forums, social networks or with a presence on other platforms

such as Google Reviews, have a greater online dissemination of the knowledge

generated on CSR.

Organic Products

Marketing research shows that CSR has a positive inﬂuence on consumers

(Lee et al., 2019; Kim, 2019) and that consumers prefer products from

companies that invest in environmental protection actions and maintain good

behavior towards society (Miles & Covin, 2000; Nadanyiova et al. 2020).

In addition, consumers attribute higher quality to the products of socially

responsible companies and this improves their perceived image (Cui et al.,

2018). Growing social concern for healthy eating and greater awareness of

environmental issues have led to organic farming having an increasing presence

in consumers’ shopping baskets. Studies such as Cetelem (2022) show that

consumers prefer products made with sustainable ingredients, with one in

two Spanish consumers taking sustainability into account when purchasing

products or contracting services. Speciﬁcally, in Spain in the period 2015-

2020, the growth in spending on organic products was 67.42% (MAFF, 2020).

Finally, in the face of the misinformation and confusion faced by organic

consumers in their choice of purchase, the website can represent a fundamental

element in the communication strategy of companies in the sector. As Baourakis

et al. (2002) point out, the Internet provides the best information channel for

organic products, given the large amount of information related to product

characteristics that consumers of organic products need when making their

purchasing choice. In this context, the internet is one of the main sources used

to search for food information (Kuttschreuter et al., 2014). Social networks

provide consumers with information and conﬁdence to compensate for the

lack of knowledge associated with organic food (Evelyn et al., 2015). In fact,

there are studies that suggest a higher penetration and intensity of use of both

social networks and websites by organic production companies compared to

non-organic production companies (Bernal et al., 2019). Based on the above,

our third proposition is as follows:

Proposition 3. Companies with organic production have a higher online

dissemination of the knowledge generated on CSR.

Cooperative societies

As far as cooperative societies are concerned, contributing to territorial

and sustainable development is not something new for them (Mozas & Bernal,

2009). Cooperative societies already intrinsically carry principles and values

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directly related to CSR and the SDGs in their DNA (Martínez & Monteagudo,

2014; Querejeta & Gómez, 2022). The International Cooperative Alliance

(2017) conﬁrms that since the ﬁrst cooperative was founded in England,

co-operativism has done nothing but preserve the SDGs. Cooperativism has

therefore been the forerunner of the SDGs, even before the SDGs existed. In

this sense, recent studies highlight the essential role of SE and speciﬁcally

cooperatives in generating positive socio-economic change (Krugman, 2023;

Vaquero et al., 2023) and contributing to the SDGs (Andreiu et al., 2023;

Filippi et al, 2023). Mazzucato (2023) states that there is no better model

than the cooperative model.

The Inter-Agency Task Force on Social and Solidarity Economy (2015), a

body set up by the UN, argued back in 2015 that cooperatives and other SE

organizations play a key role in achieving the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs. The

International Labor Organization (2022) points out that these organizations

promote the achievement of decent work, an inclusive and sustainable

economy, sustainable development and improved living standards for all. For

its part, the EU (2021) approved an action plan for the defense of social and

cooperative economy organizations for the beneﬁts they generate for the well-

being of the population and for sustainable development, and a UN resolution

(2023) encourages Member States to promote and implement national, local

and regional strategies, policies and programmes to support and strengthen

the social and solidarity economy as a possible model for sustainable economic

and social development.

If cooperative societies are fully linked to the SDGs and, therefore, to CSR,

the dissemination and communication of their actions is a mandatory action

towards their stakeholders. This is also advocated in other reports, such as

that produced by SDG Compass (2019), which emphasises that information

and communication with stakeholders is essential to ensuring that their

work is recognized and their reputation is valued in the eyes of stakeholders.

Consequently, our fourth proposition will be:

Proposition 4. Cooperative enterprises provide greater online dissemination

of the knowledge generated on CSR.

3. pOpulatiOn and methOdOlOgy

3.1. pOpulatiOn

The population under study are the olive oil producing companies in the

province of Jaén (Spain). The organizations analyzed in this study total 205

companies (126 cooperatives and 79 non-cooperatives). The register of olive

oil producing organizations was obtained from the Food Information and Control

Agency, an autonomous body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries

and Food (MAFF) of the Spanish Government. Companies for which no ﬁnancial

information was available were discarded, so 150 out of 205 companies were

analyzed (91 cooperative and 49 non-cooperative companies), which gives a

254 Raquel Puentes-Poyatos · Adoración Mozas-Moral · Enrique Bernal Jurado

representativeness rate of 75%. Each of the websites, social networks and a

number of comments made by stakeholders on Google Reviews were reviewed.

Data was collected between November and December 20221.

3.2. methOd

The Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) technique, in its fuzzy sets

(fsQCA) variant, has been used to identify the explanatory variables of the level

of online dissemination of knowledge generated in the ﬁeld of CSR. In contrast

to classical regression approaches, which seek to determine the direct effect of

factors on the dependent variable, the QCA technique allows the study of causal

patterns in the form of necessity and sufﬁciency relationships between a set of

antecedents or determinants and a speciﬁc outcome (Schneider & Wagemann,

2010). As strengths, this technique assumes that the relationship between the

variables of interest is not symmetric (asymmetry) and that several solutions

can lead to the same outcome (equiﬁnality), and yields different causality

results (causal complexity) (Elliot, 2013). The use of this technique will yield

one or more antecedent combinations for obtaining a particular outcome, such

as: X1*~X2*X3, sufﬁcient for an outcome (Y). Being: * the union and ~ the

absence or negation, in this case the opposite value of X2 (1- X2).

In this research, the level of online dissemination of the knowledge

generated on CSR was used as the outcome variable. Similarly, six variables

were included as condition variables, as detailed in Table 1. These variables

were: the existence of a complete online purchasing process; having a Blog/

Forum on their website to communicate with their customers; being present

on Social Networks to interact with their stakeholders; generating a number of

reviews on Google; the legal form (cooperative or non-cooperative) and, ﬁnally,

the presence or not of an ecological offer on the company’s website.

For the calculation of the outcome variable, the level of online dissemination

of knowledge generated on CSR (e-CSR), we have followed the following

premises. On the one hand, as already indicated in the theoretical framework,

external certiﬁcations or standards are one of the tools that organizations can

use to communicate their CSR (Esposito et al., 2021) and have the advantage

of offering maximum guarantee as they are certiﬁed by third parties. On the

other hand, there is currently no single CSR certiﬁcation that accredits CSR, so

the various certiﬁcations that exist in the different areas or dimensions of CSR

are an informative reference of the knowledge generated by organizations in

this area. Consequently, the “e-CSR” variable has been calculated according to

the number of certiﬁcations in the agri-food sector that are communicated on

their website from a social, economic and environmental perspective. By way

of summary, the main certiﬁcations considered are shown in Table 2.

1 The choice of this period coincides with the maximum activity of the sector analyzed, the harvesting

period and the beginning of the marketing of the oils from the year’s harvest. This is reﬂected in the

high online activity during this period according to the Google Trends application.

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The categorical condition variables were calculated as follows. The variables

Blog/Forum (BF), Cooperative (COOP) and Organic (ORG) take the value 0

or 1 depending on its absence or presence. The variable “Complete online

purchasing process (COPP)” was calculated on the basis of three indicators:

Availability of an online shop for purchasing; Secure online transaction (in the

possible purchasing processes, digital signature, encryption, secure payment

by card or PayPal); Interaction with the server (existence of a private registration

area).

table 1. variableS COnSidered fOr the fSQCa teChniQue

Outcome variable Description

e-CSR Online dissemination of knowledge generated in the ﬁeld

of CSR

Continuous

variable

Condition variables Description

Complete Online Purchasing

Process (COPP)

It has an online purchasing process on its website, with

secure transaction and interaction with the server.

Categorical

variable

Blog/Forum (BF) Having a Blog or Forum Dichotomous

variable

Social Networks (SN) Number of social networks in which it is present Categorical

variable

Google Reviews (GR) Number of comments on Google Reviews Continuous

variable

Cooperative (COOP) Legal form of cooperative society Dichotomous

variable

Organic (ORG) Including organic products in their offer Dichotomous

variable

Source: Own elaboration.

table 2. CSr CertifiCatiOnS

Dimensions Certiﬁcations

Social

(SD)

DS01 Food Quality and Safety

ISO 9001 /Denomination of Origin / BRC / IFS / ISO 22000 / GLOBAL GAP /ISO

22005 Traceability / “Certiﬁed Quality” Label

DS02 Labor and safety at work

ISO 45001 /OHSAS 18001 / SA 8000 / Efr Model (Family Responsible) /SEDEX -

SMETA Supply chain responsibility

Environmental

(ED)

DM01 Environmental quality of the activity

ISO 14001 / Zero Waste / FSC - PEFC / ISO 50001 Energy Efﬁciency Management /

Integrated Production Andalusia / ISO 14064 Carbon footprint of organizations

DM02 Environmental quality of the product

GlobalEPD- Environmental Product Declaration / Product Carbon Footprint / Water

Footprint / CAAE Organic Farming / Organic Farming Certiﬁcate - EU

Economic and Governance

(EGD)

DEG01 Economic transparency

Financial reporting of the activity

DEG02 Responsible management

Codes of Conduct or Ethics / Rural Quality / SR10 / EFQM MODEL Sustainability

Report / SGE 21 / ISO 26000

Source: Own elaboration.

256 Raquel Puentes-Poyatos · Adoración Mozas-Moral · Enrique Bernal Jurado

For the variable Social Networks (SN), the number of RRSS used at

company level has been considered, such as Facebook, Twitter (now “X”) and

Instagram. The social networks analyzed in this study are considered mass-use

networks (Cea-Moure, 2019) and are among the most widely used by Spanish

consumers2. These social networks are the ideal medium for communicating

products such as olive oil or wine, which, due to their ability to evoke sensations

and transmit experiences, can be considered “experiential products” (Schmitt,

1999) and allow information to be shared about their differential attributes.

Finally, for the variable Google Reviews (GR) the number of ratings received

was used. Customer reviews on Google are a key element in the online sales

process. They are very important in marking the online visibility strategy of

a business, not only because they collect important information about their

services and user experience, but also due to their inﬂuence on the decision-

making of potential customers. Customers rate their experience with the

company by marking between one and ﬁve stars. On the other hand, it is worth

remembering that the Internet is currently one of the main sources used to

search for food information (Jacob et al., 2010; Kuttschreuter et al., 2014;

Redmond and Grifﬁth, 2006; Tian and Robinson, 2008). Among the different

existing search engines Google is the main Web search engine in the world,

so that 8 out of 10 users use it to search for information on the Internet. For

the above reasons, we thought it would be useful to collect the reviews that

consumers leave on Google.

Following the recommendations established in the literature, the variables

were calibrated so that their measures in fuzzy sets present values ranging

between 0 and 1. Subsequently, a necessity analysis of the e-CSR variable

on the different causal variables was carried out to verify that none of the

variables alone was explanatory of the outcome. In none of the cases was

consistency equal to or higher than the recommended threshold of 0.9, nor

was any coverage too low, below 0.5 (Ragin, 2008).

4. reSultS and diSCuSSiOn

4.1 deSCriptive StatiStiCS

Table 3 presents basic statistics for the variables used in this research.

Next, Figures 1 and 2 show the main certiﬁcations reported by the companies

analyzed on their websites. This information will be used to calculate the value

of our outcome variable, the level of dissemination of knowledge generated on

CSR (e-CSR).

2 See: https://es.statista.com/estadisticas/500680/habitos-de-compra-online-de-los-internautas-en-

redes-sociales-en-espana-por-tipos/

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The ﬁrst result of the study is that companies do not communicate non-

ﬁnancial information in the form of reports or SRs, and very few companies

communicate their CSR knowledge generation through certiﬁcations. Only

54% of organizations disseminate information on CSR certiﬁcations. However,

this does not mean that they do not have them but instead that they do

table 3. deSCriptive StatiStiCS Of the OrganizatiOnS analyzed

Variables Information

e-CSR 54% of organizations report at least one CSR certiﬁcation

Complete Online

Purchasing Process

(COPP)

72% of organizations have a complete procurement process.

Blog/Forum (BF) 25% of the organizations have a blog/forum on their website.

Social Networks (SN) 82% of organizations are present on at least one social media site

Google Reseñas (GR) 97% of the organizations have at least one commentary

Cooperative (COOP) 61% of organizations are cooperatives

Organic (ORG) 20% of organizations sell organic products

Statistics e-CSR COPP BF SN GR COOP ORG

N Valid 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

Average 1.34 2.30 0.25 1.01 31.96 0.61 0.20

Median 1.00 3.00 0.00 1.00 19.50 1.00 0.00

Deviation 1.70 1.20 0.44 1.11 44.25 0.49 0.40

Minimum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Maximum 8 3 1 3 347 1 1

Frequency 81 108 38 82 147 91 30

Source: Own elaboration.

figure 1. number Of CertifiCatiOnS by CSr dimenSiOnS

Source: Own elaboration.

258 Raquel Puentes-Poyatos · Adoración Mozas-Moral · Enrique Bernal Jurado

not disseminate them through online media, giving rise to the phenomenon

of silent social responsibility (Jenkins, 2004). Similar data are obtained by

Sajado-Moreno & Chaves-Sajardo (2017) for Valencian SE companies, where

42% disseminate certiﬁcations to the consumer. Florensa-Guiu et al. (2023)

indicate that 33.2% of Catalan cooperatives disseminate these data linked

to SDGs or incorporate the logos and seals corresponding to the different

recognitions or accreditations.

On the other hand, with respect to the type of information reported the

companies disseminate data related to the Social Dimension of CSR, speciﬁcally

with their Food Quality and Safety practices, followed by the Environmental

Dimension, in the area of the Environmental Quality of the product. The most

followed certiﬁcations are those related to the Designation of Origin, Certiﬁed

Quality Seal of the Junta de Andalucía and Organic Production Certiﬁcations,

both national and european. These results are consistent with the results

obtained by Santos et al. (2020) for agri-food companies which state that

within the environmental dimension the most widespread indicator is related

to management systems, and in the social dimension with product quality

indicators. In a similar vein, Arcese (2017) studying wine companies highlights

that food quality and safety together with environmental issues of the products

are the CSR indicators where people pay more attention.

4.2 reSultS Of the fSQCa analySiS

The results of the fsQCA analysis are presented in Table 4, which shows

the intermediate solution of the established model. The various combinations

figure 2. number Of main CertifiCatiOnS repOrted

Source: Own elaboration.

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of variables considered, which explain a higher level of online dissemination of

knowledge generated on CSR (e-CSR), are presented. Speciﬁcally, four solutions

were identiﬁed and are presented in order of highest to lowest gross coverage.

Table 4 includes the set-theoretic consistency values for each conﬁguration,

as well as the overall model solution. As can be seen, the overall solution is

above the recommended threshold of 0.80 (Pappas et al., 2021). The overall

model resulting from this analysis reﬂects a total coverage of 0.5886. Thus,

in 58.86% of the olive companies analyzed their level of e-CSR diffusion is

explained by this set of combinations or causal conﬁgurations, with an overall

consistency of 0.82.

The ﬁrst of the conﬁgurations, with a raw coverage of 0.182645, establishes

that the combination of a complete purchasing process (COPP) and online

interactivity with stakeholders, existence of a blog/forum (BF), visibility on

Social Networks (SN) and Google reviews (GR), explains 18.26% of the cases

of a higher level of e-CSR diffusion. The corresponding consistency shows that

87.69% of the cases present such a result of interest.

The second conﬁguration establishes that the combination of a non-

cooperative company (~COOP), with a complete purchasing process (COPP)

including organic products (ORG) in its offer, together with the presence in

Social Networks (SN), explains 16.26% of the cases that achieve a higher level

of e-CSR diffusion. In this case, its consistency shows that 91.44% of the cases

present this result of interest.

Finally, it is also worth mentioning the third causal conﬁguration, which

covers 15.35% of the cases and encompasses organizations with a complete

purchasing process (COPP) including ecological products (ORG) in their offer

and with online interactivity with stakeholders through Social Networks (SN)

and Google reviews (GR).

table 4. reSultS Of the fSQCa analySiS

CONFIGURATION 1 2 3 4

Complete Online Purchasing Process (COPP) • • • •

Blog/Forum (BF) • •

Social Networks (SN) • • • •

Google Reviews (GR) • •

Cooperative (COOP) Ø Ø

Organic (ORG) • •

Raw coverage 0.182645 0.162645 0.153554 0.112562

Unique coverage 0.051405 0.048429 0.020991 0.019834

Consistency 0.876984 0.914498 0.969729 0.829476

Model coverage 0.588594

Model consistency 0.826986

(•) denotes the presence of a condition; (Ø) indicate the absence of a condition

Source: Own elaboration.

260 Raquel Puentes-Poyatos · Adoración Mozas-Moral · Enrique Bernal Jurado

In computation, all the variables considered are present in the model

with a positive relationship with the level of e-CSR diffusion, except for the

variable “Cooperatives”. We are not surprised that this variable has a negative

relationship, insofar as there are studies that indicate that companies with the

cooperative legal form have deﬁciencies or deﬁcits in digitization (Cristóbal et

al., 2017; Jorge et al., 2019; Araujo-Batlle et al., 2020) as well as in digital

communication (Bernal et al, 2019; Marín & Gómez, 2021; Herranz & García,

2021). There is evidence that this situation, although widespread in the co-

operative sector, is more accentuated among ﬁrst-tier co-operatives than

among later-tier co-operatives (Muñoz & Tirado, 2013). Despite the existing

link between co-operative principles and CSR, the lack of a strategy and an

integrated management system on CSR in this type of enterprise are identiﬁed

as explanatory factors for the low visibility of their commitment to the social

responsibility of their activities (Pérez & Gallardo, 2005). In view of these

results, we can accept all the propositions put forward in this research, except

for proposition 4, on the cooperative legal form.

5. COnCluSiOn

Society is increasingly critical of unethical business practices and their

environmental and social impacts. Stakeholder pressure is inﬂuencing business

practices and the dissemination of CSR knowledge. This research has highlighted

the importance of ICTs for the dissemination of organizational knowledge.

Transparency and knowledge sharing are key areas of CSR knowledge

management. Effective communication of socially responsible information is

crucial for corporate reputation and competitiveness. Sustainability reports,

external certiﬁcations and standards are tools used to communicate the

knowledge generated in CSR and ICTs and, in particular, the Internet plays

an important role in facilitating the dissemination and accessibility of this

knowledge online.

In line with the theoretical approach, the aim of this study was to analyze

the type of CSR knowledge disseminated by olive oil companies in the province

of Jaén and the factors or variables that explain a greater or lesser level of

dissemination. Speciﬁcally, the propositions that we defended in this study were

that the dissemination of this CSR knowledge, measured through the number

of certiﬁcations that they communicate on their website, was conditioned by

factors such as: the existence of a complete online purchasing process; having

a Blog/Forum on their website to communicate with their customers; being

present on Social Networks and other platforms such as Google Reviews to

interact with their stakeholders; the legal form of the organization, considering

whether or not it is a cooperative society; and, ﬁnally, the presence or not of

an organic offer on the company’s website.

The ﬁrst relevant result of this study is that olive companies do not disclose

their SRs and follow SR indicators very selectively. Online communication is

mainly focused on certiﬁcations linked to the product and not so much to

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the activity (Arcese et al., 2017). The most widespread certiﬁcations are the

ones related to the Denomination of Origin, Certiﬁed Quality Seal of the Junta

de Andalucía and the Organic Production Certiﬁcations, both national and

EU. Only 54% of the population under study report any CSR certiﬁcation, a

percentage that is within that obtained by other studies (Santos et al., 2021;

Esposito et al., 2021). Consequently, it can be stated that there is little culture

of dissemination of knowledge in SR or online communication of non-ﬁnancial

information in olive companies and even less of elaboration of non-ﬁnancial

reports or SR (Mozas et al., 2014; Bollas-Araya & Seguí-Mas, 2014; Castilla-

Polo et al., 2015, Santos et al., 2021). Olive companies do not follow the

communicative patterns highlighted for large capitalist companies in terms of

SR communication (Castilla et al., 2022).

The results obtained in this research show, using the Fuzzy Set Qualitative

Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) methodological technique, that in general

terms the dissemination of knowledge on CSR is favored by the existence of

a complete online purchasing process with the presence of organic products

and by interactivity with stakeholders through Blogs, Forums, Social Networks

or Google reviews. However, it is not favored by the legal form of the company

as a cooperative society, insofar as this social type does not communicate

its CSR knowledge generation well, despite being a benchmark of a socially

responsible company.

This paper is not without limitations. The main one is that it has been

carried out in one sector and in one country, so our future lines of research

involve replicating this work in other sectors and in other countries to check

that the results are homogeneous and consistent.

On the other hand, we believe that the results are a warning to the co-

operative sector. If co-operatives are socially responsible entities aligned

with sustainability and consumers value these factors in their purchases, co-

operative societies should communicate their activities and non-ﬁnancial

indicators to their stakeholders so that their products will be more highly

valued.

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