Revista de economía mundial 67, 2024, 197-219

ISSN: 1576-0162

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.33776/rem.vi67.8097

The ResilienT employmenT of CoopeRaTive

soCieTies in RelaTion To sDG-8

El EmplEo rEsiliEntE dE las sociEdadEs

coopErativas En rElación con El ods-8

Macarena Pérez-Suárez

Universidad de Sevilla

Mperez32@us.es

Isidora Sánchez-Torné

Universidad de Sevilla

Isanchez6@us.es

Recibido: diciembre 2023; aceptado: abril 2024

absTRaCT

Cooperative employment was resilient during the 2008 ﬁnancial crisis

at the global level and at the European level, based on this ﬁnding, it was

necessary to know the cooperative employment during the COVID-19 health

crisis. The interaction between employment and the economic cycle allows us

to observe the most recent behavior of cooperatives in Spain and to discuss the

achievement of SDG-8 decent work and economic growth. This analysis aimed

to determine the employment-generating potential of Spanish cooperatives.

An inductive methodology was used through automation in three analyses. The

results found that decent and resilient cooperative employment is concentrated

in four regions: Catalonia, Galicia, Extremadura, and Murcia. Over the period

2005-2020, the behavior of cooperative employment is different in a ﬁnancial

crisis than in a health crisis.

Keywords: Shift-share analysis, Economic Cycle, Cooperatives, Employment,

Sustainable Development Goal.

Resumen

El empleo cooperativo fue resiliente durante la crisis ﬁnanciera de 2008 a

nivel global y a nivel europeo, a partir de este hallazgo, se hizo necesario conocer

el empleo cooperativo durante la crisis sanitaria COVID-19. La interacción

entre el empleo y el ciclo económico permite observar el comportamiento

más reciente de las cooperativas en España y discutir la consecución del ODS-

8 trabajo decente y crecimiento económico. El objetivo fue determinar el

potencial de generación de empleo de las cooperativas españolas. Se utilizó

una metodología inductiva mediante la automatización en tres análisis. Los

resultados determinaron que el empleo cooperativo digno y resiliente se

concentra en cuatro regiones: Cataluña, Galicia, Extremadura y Murcia. En el

periodo (2005-2020), el comportamiento del empleo cooperativo es diferente

en una crisis ﬁnanciera que en una crisis sanitaria.

Palabras clave: Análisis Shift-share, Ciclo Económico, Cooperativas,

Empleo, Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible.

JEL Classiﬁcation/ Clasiﬁcación JEL: J54, P13, Q01, R10

Revista de economía mundial 67, 2024, 197-219

1. inTRoDuCTion

The literature on the SDGs is extensive, but the literature on SDG-related

business challenges is not. It is just starting when it comes to Social Economy

(SE) enterprises (Lafont-Torio, Saura, & Ribeiro-Soriano, 2023). There is some

evidence on SDG (Sustainable Development Goals) measurement in social

enterprises, e.g., Diaz-Sarachaga and Ariza-Montes (2022), and other evidence

on sectoral performance, e.g., Lafont-Torio, Martín, Salinas, and Ribeiro

(2024), and Mozas-Moral, Fernández-Uclés, Medina-Viruel, and Bernal-Jurado

(2021) and Lafont-Torio, Martín, Salinas, and Ribeiro (2024). In particular, the

evidence on the cooperative link with the inﬂuence of SDG-8 is recent, e.g.,

Bastida, Vaquero, Pinto, et al. (2022). Cooperatives belong to the SE, so one of

their deﬁning characteristics is their orientation to social goals, and these are

closely aligned with the achievement of the SDGs. This is where it is important

to detail the contribution of cooperatives to decent employment.

Cooperatives are a valuable source of information for business decision-

making, since some demonstrations show that these societies reveal greater

resilience than capitalist companies (García-Louzao, 2021). Additionally, they

manifest a defensive character in a period of crisis, which also indicates that

they are problem-solving societies without being proﬁt maximizers (Barrios-

González et al., 2023).

It should be noted that territories exert a greater inﬂuence on cooperatives

than on other businesses. The initial situation of each region and the

responsiveness of its cooperatives, with their characteristics, principles, and

values, are not homogeneous among territories (Pérez & Valiente, 2020). The

hardened business fabric becomes an opportunity to determine the resilience

of employment in the face of variations in the economic cycle. On this basis,

the aim is to determine whether cooperative employment is representative

at the territorial level, what is the pattern of the regions, and to identify the

inﬂuence of the economic cycle.

Studies on cooperative employment are scarce and, even less so, exist from

a global and/or comparative perspective. There are no studies on cooperative

employment and SDG-8 as protagonists. The main reason for this is the lack

of formal records and homogeneity of public information. The OECD is now

200 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

working on <Mapping social and solidarity ecosystems around the World1>.

In the immediate future, this initiative may be a source of information for a

comparative analysis of cooperative employment worldwide. However, it is

important to conduct quantitative research to provide solid evidence and

ﬁgures on cooperative employment and its behavior in different situations of

the economic cycle (OECD, 2022; United Nations, 2019; CICOPA, 2017; ILO,

2009). Previous studies have shown that cooperatives are resilient entities

capable of cushioning employment reduction during a ﬁnancial crisis, such

as the 2008 crisis. Therefore, it will be worthwhile to detect whether such

resilience endures during and after the tragic recession caused by the 2020

health crisis (Costa, Delbono & Linguiti, 2022). To that end, this examination is

conducted in Spain (Table 1).

The role of cooperatives in employment generation has been observed in

some temporal studies, although with different methodological approaches,

dissimilar time periods and units of analysis, which makes comparisons

and even progress difﬁcult. These studies pay attention to the behavior of

employment formed by cooperatives in the face of changes in economic cycles

or in the presence of a crisis or recession, which is when cooperative values are

essential (Barrios-González, García-Pérez & Yanes-Estévez, 2023). During an

economic crisis, Sala-Ríos et al. (2015) evidenced that Spanish cooperatives

show signs of a lower loss of employment in relative terms. Canalda (2019) also

recognizes the direct expert relationship between the SE and the promotion of

stable employment in these societies. In them, regarding resilient employment

during a crisis, quality employment and inclusive employment, it has been

found, implicitly, that cooperatives exert a positive inﬂuence on employment

(Guzmán, Santos & Barroso, 2020). This is a relationship that is the subject of

current debate, here and now, what is not known is do cooperative societies

have a countercyclical condition or a cyclical condition in Spain?

This diagnosis covers all of Spain’s Autonomous Communities (regions)

to show the employment-generating potential of these SE companies.

The reference to the national and regional level is based on statistical data

corresponding to the time interval 2005-2020 (Data by the Ministry of

Labor and Social Economy). This study proves that cooperative and decent

employment is resilient employment during a ﬁnancial crisis, which shows

that resilience is a core cooperative value. However, there is still room for

improvement in cooperative values and employment, such as in their response

to a health crisis. As for the trend of generating cooperative employment, all

national regions, except Ceuta and Melilla, will generate more cooperative

employment in the short term.

Finally, the present work represents an added value to previous works

cited on the advantages of cooperative societies from the perspective of

employment and territorial organization (Cancelo, Vázquez & Díaz-Vázquez,

1 Source: https://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/social-economy/oecd-global-action/country-fact-sheets.htm

(Date of Consultation 28/12/2023).

201

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revisTa de economía mundial 67, 2024, 197-219

2022). The richness of this longitudinal analysis of cooperative employment

helps to overcome the scarcity of this type of research, given the difﬁculty of

access to information, since it includes an estimate of the future.

The article is structured in ﬁve sections. It begins with a review of the

most recent research works on cooperative employment in Spain. Then, the

methodology of the analysis is set out and the results reached are dealt with

in the characterization of the observed variables of the economic cycle and its

manifestation. These results allow presenting the main ﬁndings of the research

and express certain implications and future lines of research.

2. liTeRaTuRe Review

The content of the article is based on two study topics: “cooperatives”

and “employment”. The interest in the quantitative measurement of the role

of the SE at the territorial level is reﬂected in more than a decade of national

contributions (from Grávalos & Pomares, 2001 to Barrios-González et al.,

2023) and international contributions (from the ILO, 2009 to the OECD, 2022).

Most authors consider the relationship of cooperative employment with the

economic cycle from the economy as a whole or regions (Canalda, 2019) to

the productive structure (Sala-Ríos, 2023). Table 1 presents a synthesis of the

references reviewed.

More references are found in explicit crisis periods than in longitudinal

and/or comparative studies between the pre-crisis, crisis, and post-crisis

periods. Nevertheless, empirical work in the last decade is scarce and, for this

reason, it is necessary to advance in territorial knowledge about the SE from

a socioeconomic perspective and labor impact. The literature points out that

Spanish cooperative societies are popular models in times of economic and

political crisis, and this indicates a certain countercyclical dynamic (Camps-

Durban & Mauri-Ríos, 2022). In general, studies present evidence on the

weight of SE employment in total employment, the degree of stability and

wage evolution, focusing, in some cases, on cooperatives.

There is no homogeneous behavior of cooperative employment at the

territorial level in Spain. Some regions, for example Andalusia, Navarre, and the

Basque Country, have a better capacity to maintain and generate cooperative

employment in a phase of ﬁnancial crisis. During the ﬁnancial crisis period

(2008-2015), Spanish cooperatives destroyed fewer jobs than in comparison

to the total number of enterprises. In a recession phase, cooperatives create

a few new jobs in more regions compared to total enterprises (Pérez-Suárez

and Sánchez-Torné, 2020). However, there is no evidence for the health crisis.

There is some evidence on the types of employment relationships predominant

in Spanish cooperatives, where it is seen how the employment relationship

between the cooperative and the employee affects the bond between the

two, and how, in turn, this bond can affect the resilience of the cooperative.

Cooperative principles make Spanish cooperatives more resilient cooperatives

(Rincon-Roldan & Lopez-Cabrales, 2021). Yet, an analysis of the direct impact,

202 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

in terms of economic activity and employment generated, is insufﬁcient in a

situation of structural crisis. Analyses clarify the differential condition of these

societies since renewed time series can strengthen the empirical work of the

last twenty years in Spain.

Table 1. liTeRaTuRe Review.

Author Period Main premises

International Labour Organiza-

tion (ILO), 2009 2008

It explained the need to back the cooperative movement as an

innovative solution to generate more employment during the

global ﬁnancial crisis of 2008.

Castro, Santero, Martínez and

Guilló, 2013 2009 The Social Economy (SE) contributes directly to economic activi-

ty, employment and increased social cohesion in Spain.

Clemente-López et al., 2014 2005-2010 In times of crisis, cooperatives maintain employment along with

increased business creation in Spain.

Cuadrado-Serrán and Ciruela-

Lorenzo, 2014 2003-2012

Employment in the SE withstood the crisis (2008-2010),

although not in the same way in the following years, as net job

losses were recorded in Spain.

Román-Cervantes, 2014 1942-2002

Cooperatives grow in times of economic expansion (industrial

cooperatives and worker cooperatives). However, during periods

of low GDP growth, cooperatives are more dynamic. Cooperati-

ves have an anti-cyclical proﬁle in the economic reality in Spain.

Sala-Ríos, Torres-Solé and Farré-

Perdiguer, 2015 1995-2014

A certain countercyclical behavior of cooperative employment is

recorded. Cooperatives are sensitive to the economic cycle and

their employment diminishes resilience in Spain.

Blanco-Canto, 2017 2008-2016

Cooperatives have the capacity to create and maintain em-

ployment in times of economic recession, based on a peculiar

business management and a high adaptability to local changes

in Spain.

International Organization of

Industrial and Service Cooperati-

ves (CICOPA), 2017 2014

In particular, the resilience of cooperatives during the 2008-

2011 ﬁnancial crisis was shown in European territories,

examples of which are: Italian co-operatives accounted for

11% of employment in 2008 (EURICSE, 2014). Between 2007

and 2011, employment in Italian cooperatives increased by

8% (CENSIS, 2012). Italian cooperatives have an anti-cyclical

function (EURICSE, 2014); this is supported by their differen-

tiated ownership structure. French co-operatives increased

employment by 4% between 2012-2013 and 12.5% between

2009-2013. Sixty-eight percent of the workforce in the social

and solidarity economy are women (Confederation General of

Scop. and Scic., 2013).

Serrano, Crespo, Celma and

Martínez, 2018 1970-2016

Some authors have pointed out a signiﬁcant counter-cyclical

character of cooperatives in relation to the evolution of the ge-

neral economy in Spain. The existence of “a positive relationship

between an economic crisis and the creation of cooperatives”

is proven.

Canalda, 2019 2008-2018

There is “a positive relationship between an economic crisis and

the creation of labor companies” in Spain. In crisis situations,

labor companies demonstrate a greater capacity for survival

than conventional companies thanks to the co-management of

their members, the minimization or absence of proﬁt motives

and the prioritization of maintaining employment.

... / ...

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revisTa de economía mundial 67, 2024, 197-219

Author Period Main premises

Pérez and Valiente, 2019 2015

International studies have shown that the SE in general, and

cooperatives in particular, are more resistant to job destruction

during an economic recession. This indicates a countercyclical

behavior in Spain.

United Nations (UN), 2019 2018

It highlights how cooperatives are resilient and viable busi-

nesses that can thrive in tough times as the 2008 ﬁnancial

crisis proved. This has allowed many families to have a decent

job and maintain a decent standard of living. In 2019, it noted

that cooperatives have a relevant role to play in reaching

the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Editorial-Revista

Idelcoop, 2019).

Pérez-Suárez and Sánchez-Torné,

2020 2005-2016

Cooperatives increased the number of employed people during

the crisis period (2008-2015), and this shows a concrete

capacity to generate employment. Andalusian cooperativism

registers a Dynamic Effect on employment since cooperatives

increase their jobs to a greater extent than the rest of the SE

companies in Spain.

Sala-Ríos, Farré-Perdiguer and

Torres-Solé,

2020

2003-2019 Cooperative employment shows a partial degree of resilience,

but cooperative employment is not countercyclical in Spain.

Camps-Durban and Mauri-Ríos,

2022 2020-2021

In a phase of economic contraction, as a response to growing

unemployment, the number of Spanish cooperatives and

worker-owned companies increases at a higher rate than other

types of companies in the country.

Cancelo, Vázquez and Díaz-

Vázquez, 2022 2006-2020

The SE stabilizes according to the economic evolution of Spa-

nish cooperatives and worker-owned companies. A counter-

cyclical evolution of cooperative employment in the COVID-19

crisis is not observed, but cooperatives note a smaller drop in

employment than in the rest of the business world (in the Spa-

nish economy, employment decreased in all economic activities

during the pandemic): cooperatives have generated some jobs,

especially in health care and social services activities.

Costa, Delbono and Linguiti,

2022 2010-2019

Italian cooperatives promote regional prosperity more through

the employment offered than through their lucrative added

value. There is a positive relationship between the size of the

Italian cooperative movement and the resilience of the regional

economic system in the 2008 ﬁnancial crisis. In fact, since both

absorptive capacity (resilience) and resilience are two desir-

able characteristics of territorial systems, a large cooperative

presence could provide a comparative advantage to promote

prosperity and protect it during and/or after crisis.

European Parliament, 2022 2021 SE accounts for 6.3% of employment in the EU.

International Cooperative Allian-

ce (ICA), 2022 2021

Since 2012, it prepares an annual report (World Cooperative

Monitor) where a ranking of cooperatives is shown according to

their turnover, the sector and the jobs generated. This report does

not present data aggregated by country and this does not allow

a speciﬁc analysis by territory, but it can be highlighted that the

cooperatives that generate the highest volume of employment

belong to France, Germany, and Japan. Within the European Union,

cooperative employment is concentrated in France, Spain, and Italy.

... / ...

204 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

3. meThoDoloGy

The quantitative methodology begins with a study of the inter-annual and

inter-period variation rate of the number of workers, and the use of shift-share

analysis to determine the growth of employment in the cooperatives in relation

to national results, as well as a comparison at the regional level between 2005-

2020. For this purpose, the records of the number of workers were compiled

for ﬁve periods (Table 2).

For the analysis, workers in registered cooperatives and workers in the total

number of companies registered with the Social Security were selected. In

addition, the evolution of the number of cooperatives was also analyzed. Their

deﬁnition, unit of measurement and time are described in Table 2. The sources

of the analysis come from the statistics prepared by the Ministry of Labor and

Social Economy2 .

This temporal grouping starts from two premises: 1) in a Recession Period,

job destruction tends to be lower in cooperatives than in the rest of the

mercantile companies, and, therefore, evidences a “cushioning” behavior of

these societies during a period of economic crisis (Perard, 2016). This trend

differs at the territorial level, as employment generation reﬂects a regional and

supra-territorial non-correlation. 2) In a crisis period, cooperatives increase the

number of employed people. Like other authors, a comparison of cooperative

societies with mercantile companies was addressed (Pérez & Valiente, 2019).

2 Source: https://www.mites.gob.es/es/sec_trabajo/autonomos/economia-social/index.htm (Date of

Consultation 01/11/2023).

Author Period Main premises

Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development

(OECD), 2022

2021

Similar patterns during crises in the SE are observed, in that,

during crises, the position of the SE is strengthened in the politi-

cal agenda, representative organizations and territorial legisla-

tive activity. The SE has demonstrated its own resilience in the

face of economic crises. During the 2008 global ﬁnancial crisis,

SE organizations experienced fewer job losses than for-proﬁt

companies. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a low percentage

of social enterprises were forced to close due to the economic

consequences of the health crisis.

Sala-Ríos,

2022, 2023 2008-2020

Cooperative employment does not show a refuge effect or

greater resilience in Spain. A high rate of cooperatives in the

territory is positively related to their societal performance

(regional specialization, and social or organizational synergies)

in Spain.

Barrios-González, García-Pérez

and Yanes-Estévez, 2023 1999-2019

There is a regional convergence of cooperative employment in

the regions of Spain. The behavior of cooperative employment,

among the different regions, is divergent. Spanish cooperative

employment does not show a homogeneous behavior among

the different regions, but rather identiﬁes several clusters. Coo-

peratives can be a tool for stabilizing employment, especially in

times of crisis.

Source: Own elaboration.

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Shift-share analysis decomposes the Total Effect of the growth in the number

of jobs in cooperatives into three different effects (Table 3): national, dynamic,

and competitive, and thus determines to which type of effect the variations

in employment growth in Spanish cooperatives are due. This technique has

been used in different ﬁelds, particularly within the area of regional studies

and the labor market (Montanía, Márquez, Fernández-Núñez & Hewings,

2023; Blanco-Canto, 2017). The Shift-share analysis enables obtaining some

conclusions about the changes which have taken place in regions (in our case

these are regions), indicating if these derive from the general trend of the

territory to which they belong (in our case this is Spain) or, on the contrary, a

particular trend of the region occurs (Cieślak, Pawlewicz & Pawlewicz, 2019).

Finally, to complete this research, a projection for the next 4 years has been

proposed. For this purpose, a quadratic regression has been used employing

the R programming language: y = ax2 +bx+c. Thus, an estimate of the trend

in the volume of people employed in the cooperatives between 2020 and

2025 is presented.

Table 2. TeChniCal DaTa sheeT of The ReseaRCh.

Variables Period Unit of measure

Workers in the registered coopera-

tives. 2005 - 2020 Number of working people

(thousands).

Workers in the total number of registe-

red companies. 2005 - 2020 Number of working people

(thousands).

Registered cooperatives 2005 - 2020 Number of cooperatives.

Registered companies 2005 - 2020 Number of companies.

Number of working people (thou-

sands).

Pre-crisis period (2005-2007)

Financial Crisis.

Crisis Period (2008-2015)

Recovery Period (2016-2018)

COVID-19 Health Crisis (2019-2020). Health Crisis.

Source: Own elaboration based on information from the Ministry of Labor and Social Economy.

206 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

4. ResulTs

4.1. evoluTion of The numbeR of woRkinG people in Companies anD in

ReGisTeReD CoopeRaTives

The progress of cooperative employment is shown in Table 5, where its

trend in the ﬁve downturns of the most recent economic cycle is observed.

Based on Table 5, the main assumptions are shown in Table 4.

Table 3. ReseaRCh foRmulas.

Type of Analysis Formula Deﬁnition

Year-on-year

variation rate/

periods

Number of people working in year t.

Number of employees in year t-1.

Shift-share

Total effect:

= ) + + .

Number of jobs in cooperatives in the regions in year t

: Rate of change in the number of working people in cooperative

regions between year t and t-1.

: Growth rate of the number of workers in the total number of compa-

nies registered with the Social Security in Spain between year t and t-1.

: growth rate of the number of workers in Spanish cooperatives bet-

ween year t and t-1.

National effect:

Determines what part of the variation is due to the state’s own inertia.

It shows the growth or reduction in the number of people working in

cooperatives in the regions if their growth rate had been the national

average.

Competitive Effect:

Quantiﬁes the inﬂuence that the speciﬁc behavior of cooperative

workers in the regions has on the evolution of cooperatives workers in

Spain.

Dynamic Effect: The part of the differential with respect to the national growth rate that

is due to cooperatives workers at the Spanish level.

Quadratic

regression To propose an estimate for a series of years.

Source: Own elaboration.

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Table 4. pRemises of CoopeRaTive employmenT.

Period Conﬁrmations

Full period (2005 - 2020)

A period shaken by ﬁnancial crisis and a health crisis. It is marked by a reduction in employment caused by the COVID-19 health crisis, which gave

way to an economic crisis resulting from commercial and social restrictions.

This reduction was accompanied by a decrease in the number of total enterprises (-3.87%) and cooperatives (-28.18%).

Increase in employment in total companies and reduction of employment in cooperatives: Andalusia, the Balearic Islands, Ceuta and Melilla,

Extremadura, Galicia.

Increase in employment in total companies and cooperatives: Community of Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, Basque Country. Only the latter two ter-

ritories experienced an increase in the number of cooperatives (55.43% and 28.90% respectively).

Reduction in employment in total companies and cooperatives: Aragón, Asturias, the Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castile and León, Castilla-La

Mancha, Catalonia, Valencian Community, La Rioja.

Reduction of employment in total companies and increase in cooperatives: no cases.

Pre-ﬁnancial crisis period

(2005-2007)

There was a general increase in employment and the number of total enterprises, although in ten regions there was a reduction in the number of

people working in cooperatives. This trend was accompanied by an increase in the number of enterprises and a reduction in the volume of coop-

eratives (except for four zones: Castile and León: 0,72%, Castilla-La Mancha: 0,18%, Ceuta and Melilla: 3,13%, Basque Country:0,63%).

Increase in employment in total companies and reduction in employment in cooperatives: Andalusia, Aragón, Asturias, the Canary Islands, Castile

and León, Ceuta and Melilla, Extremadura, Galicia, Murcia, La Rioja.

Increase in employment in total companies and increase in employment in cooperatives: Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Valencian Com-

munity, Navarre, the Balearic Islands, Community of Madrid, Basque Country.

Financial Crisis Period

(2008-2015)

There was a generalized decrease in the number of companies and people working in the total number of companies, although this contrasts with

four regions that increased the number of people registered as workers in cooperatives.

Increase in employment in total companies and reduction of employment in cooperatives: Murcia.

Increase in employment in total companies and cooperatives: Andalusia.

Reduction in employment in total companies and cooperatives: Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Community of Madrid, Extremadura,

Galicia, Aragón, Asturias, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, Castile and León, Community of Madrid, La Rioja.

Decrease in employment in total companies and increase in cooperatives: Ceuta and Melilla, Navarre, Basque Country. Only in the latter two te-

rritories is there an increase in the number of cooperatives higher than the rate experienced by the total number of companies (Navarre: 12.02%,

Basque Country: 20.18%).

... / ...

208 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

Period Conﬁrmations

Financial Recovery Period

(2016-2018)

Overall, employment in all companies increased as did the number of companies, but in ten territories, cooperatives lost employment. In eight

areas the increase in the number of cooperatives was higher than the change in the total number of enterprises (Aragón: 1,18%, Cantabria:

3,57%, Castilla-La Mancha: 4,10%, Murcia: 5,68%, Navarre: 22,87%, Basque Country: 2,71%).

Increase in employment in total companies and reduction of employment in cooperatives: Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha, Ceuta and Melilla, Valen-

cian Community, La Rioja.

Increase in employment in total companies and cooperatives: Andalusia, Aragón, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, Community of Madrid,

Extremadura, Galicia, Navarre, Asturias, Castile and León, Catalonia, Murcia, Basque Country.

COVID-19 Health Crisis

(2019-2020)

There is a decrease in employment in all territories (accompanied by a reduction in the number of companies) except Murcia, on the other hand,

there is an increase in the number of workers registered in cooperatives in three regions. But only Navarre showed a positive evolution in the

number of cooperatives (1,42%).

Increase in employment in total companies and reduction of employment in cooperatives: the Canary Islands.

Increase in employment in total companies and cooperatives: Murcia.

Reduction in employment in total companies and cooperatives: Catalonia, Galicia, Andalusia, Asturias, the Balearic Islands, Cantabria, Castilla-La

Mancha, Ceuta and Melilla, Community of Madrid, Valencian Community, Navarre, Basque Country, La Rioja.

Reduction of employment in total companies and increase in cooperatives: Aragón, Castile and León, Extremadura.

Source: Own elaboration.

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Table 5. inTeRannual vaRiaTion RaTe of The numbeR of woRkeRs in The ToTal ReGisTeReD Companies.

REGIONS

Variation (growth) rate of the number of people working in the

Total Registered Companies

Variation (growth) rate of the number of people working in the Total Registe-

red Cooperatives

2005-2020 2005 - 2007 2008 - 2015 2016 - 2018 2019-2020 2005-2020 2005 - 2007 2008 - 2015 2016 - 2018 2019-2020

SPAIN 0.95% 7.38% -11.00% 8.57% -2.55% -9.63% 1.21% -6.45% 5.06% -12.05%

ANDALUSIA 12.20% 8.22% 0.11% 10.54% -2.06% -9.07% -1.52% 6.73% 1.41% -15.63%

ARAGÓN -2.04% 10.37% -16.13% 8.54% -3.07% -12.78% -1.72% -19.30% 1.31% 8.64%

ASTURIAS -10.32% 8.41% -19.10% 4.41% -2.16% -37.10% -4.78% -29.06% 7.32% -6.85%

BALEARIC ISLANDS 0.75% 8.04% -11.12% 9.25% -5.63% -40.83% 11.31% -46.61% 1.96% -7.28%

CANARY ISLANDS -6.03% 4.90% -9.24% 8.71% -7.77% -37.07% -7.26% -22.45% 0.73% -8.66%

CANTABRIA -5.11% 9.75% -16.65% 6.44% -2.49% -32.24% 3.12% -16.65% -9.82% -5.64%

CASTILE AND LEÓN -5.38% 8.77% -16.48% 6.09% -1.93% -23.73% -0.10% -25.27% 7.75% 5.31%

CASTILLA-LA

MANCHA -4.24% 13.38% -22.20% 10.05% -0.45% -17.93% 1.08% -13.65% -18.51% -4.39%

CATALONIA -2.71% 5.37% -12.72% 7.25% -3.10% -0.19% 2.09% -4.65% 11.87% -2.18%

CEUTA AND ME-

LILLA 2.60% 11.83% -20.97% 9.93% -0.62% -27.01% -3.55% 7.25% -14.57% -1.60%

COMMUNITY OF

MADRID 4.06% 7.14% -10.31% 8.81% -2.84% 2.18% 10.06% -8.77% 5.31% -14.24%

VALENCIAN COM-

MUNITY -1.47% 5.51% -11.51% 10.23% -1.38% -26.70% 1.28% -16.98% -1.51% -26.06%

EXTREMADURA -1.07% 11.51% -16.02% 8.99% -0.33% -3.26% -1.29% -15.58% 3.68% 29.43%

GALICIA -3.88% 9.70% -17.42% 7.12% -2.45% -3.86% -1.96% -5.19% 6.50% -2.07%

MURCIA 15.20% 7.99% 0.39% 8.97% 0.52% 2.98% -0.50% -2.23% 10.40% 1.01%

NAVARRE 5.88% 8.97% -11.28% 8.74% -1.34% 41.61% 7.15% 8.68% 6.47% -12.72%

BASQUE COUNTRY -2.40% 6.12% -12.76% 5.71% -2.46% 16.27% 9.15% 6.64% 14.54% -20.13%

RIOJA (LA) -0.33% 6.90% -12.13% 7.21% -1.49% -63.93% -16.44% -30.75% -1.46% -7.17%

Source: Ministry of Labor and Social Economy database (01/11/2023).

210 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

4.2. shifT-shaRe analysis

To clarify Section 4.1. and to understand the reason for the evolution of the

number of people working in cooperatives registered with the Social Security,

a Shift-share analysis is carried out to determine the effects caused by the

variation in employment in cooperatives in Spain and its regions. According to

the results of the Shift-share analysis, presented in Table 7 and 8, four trends

can be observed (Table 6).

Table 6. pRemises of CoopeRaTive employmenT.

Period Conﬁrmations

Full period

(2005 - 2020)

There is a negative variation rate in fourteen of the seventeen regions of Spain. Moreover, those

territories that exhibited a growth in employment in cooperatives also did so in the total number

of companies.

Increase in employment in total companies and reduction of employment in cooperatives: An-

dalusia, Extremadura, Galicia, the Balearic Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla. The ﬁrst three areas show

a positive National and Competitive Effect, but the Dynamic Effect is negative and higher than

the other two, which implies that employment in cooperatives at the regional level is positive but

not enough to counteract the national decreasing dynamics. The second group shows a weak

cooperative sector with negative ﬁgures in the Competitive and Dynamic Effect.

Increase in employment in the total number of enterprises and in the cooperatives motivated by

the National and competitive effect: Community of Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, Basque Country.

Thus, this increase was due both to the cooperatives’ own national expansion and to the increase

in cooperative hiring in these regions.

Reduction of employment in total companies and cooperatives: Aragón, Asturias, the Canary Is-

lands, Cantabria, Castile and León, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Valencian Community, La Rioja,

show a weak cooperative sector with negative ﬁgures in the Competitive and Dynamic Effect, in

addition to exceptionally low results in the National Effect.

Pre-ﬁnancial

crisis period

(2005-2007)

The rate of change was positive for eight regions: Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Valen-

cian Community, Navarre, the Balearic Islands, Community of Madrid, Basque Country.

Increase in employment in total companies and reduction of employment in cooperatives: An-

dalusia, Aragón, Asturias, the Canary Islands, Castile and León, Ceuta and Melilla, Extremadura,

Galicia, Murcia, La Rioja. In this case the negative results are justiﬁed through competitive and

dynamic effects, thus revealing the weakness of these cooperatives to increase their workforce.

Increase in employment in total enterprises and increase in employment in cooperatives:

Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Valencian Community, Navarre, the Balearic Islands,

Community of Madrid, Basque Country. All these regions, except Castilla-La Mancha, presented

the same justiﬁcation: National and positive competitive effect. Thus, the growth of contracts

in cooperatives was due both to the national growth itself and to the increase in cooperative

contracts in these regions. Castilla-La Mancha owes its entire increase to national inertia.

Financial Crisis

Period (2008-

2015)

Four regions show an increase in employment in cooperatives: Andalusia, Ceuta and Melilla,

Navarre, Basque Country.

Increase in employment in the total number of companies and reduction of employment in

cooperatives: Murcia and Navarre show positive ﬁgures in their Dynamic and Competitive Effect,

which is evidence of the employment-generating potential of their cooperatives, but the National

Effect is negative and higher.

Increase in employment in total enterprises and cooperatives: Andalusia. This was due to the

Dynamic and Competitive Effect, which highlights the strength of cooperatives in this territory to

generate employment.

Reduction of employment in total enterprises and in cooperatives: Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha,

Catalonia, Community of Madrid, Extremadura, Galicia, Aragón, Asturias, the Balearic Islands,

the Canary Islands, Castile and León, La Rioja.

Decrease in employment in total companies and increase in cooperatives for the same reasons

as Andalusia: Ceuta and Melilla, Navarre, Basque Country.

... / ...

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revisTa de economía mundial 67, 2024, 197-219

Financial Re-

covery Period

(2016-2018)

Thirteen of the seventeen regions show growth in the number of cooperative hires.

Increase in employment in total companies and reduction in employment in cooperatives: Canta-

bria, Castilla-La Mancha, Ceuta and Melilla, Valencian Community, La Rioja; all have competitive

and dynamic effects, i.e., internal reasons for each region.

Increase in employment in total companies and cooperatives: 1) Competitive and dynamic effect,

where Andalusia, Aragón, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands and Extremadura are located.

2) National and competitive effect, where Asturias, Castile and León, Catalonia, Community of

Madrid, Galicia, Murcia, Navarre, and the Basque Country are located. Thus, the ﬁrst group justi-

ﬁes its increase both by the risee in hiring in the cooperatives and by the competitiveness of the

territory itself. The second group increased its ﬁgures because of national expansion in coopera-

tive hiring and the employment-generating potential of this legal business form in the territories.

COVID-19

Health Crisis

(2019-2020)

Four regions show an increasing evolution in their employment rate in cooperatives. Moreover,

the National Effect was negative for all territories, so the positive results are due to the strength

of cooperatives.

Increase in employment in the total number of companies and reduction of employment in the

cooperatives: Although the Canary Islands show a positive Competitive Effect (strength in its

cooperatives), the National and dynamic effect is negative and higher.

Increase in employment in the total number of companies and in the cooperatives: Murcia owes

its growth exclusively to the Competitive Effect.

Reduction of employment in total companies and cooperatives: Andalusia, Community of Ma-

drid, Valencian Community, Navarre, Basque Country, Asturias, the Balearic Islands, Cantabria,

Castilla-La Mancha, Ceuta and Melilla, La Rioja. Catalonia, Galicia. The ﬁrst ﬁve regions have

a negative result in the three effects, while the rest present positive ﬁgures in the Competitive

Effect.

Reduction of employment in total companies and increase in cooperatives: Aragón, Castile and

León, Extremadura, as well as Murcia, owe their growth exclusively to the Competitive Effect.

Source: Own elaboration.

Table 7. shifT-shaRe analysis of The numbeR of woRkeRs in CoopeRaTive soCieTies foR The peRioD

2005-2020.

REGIONS

2005 - 2020

Total effect National

Effect Competitive Effect Dynamic

Effect

ANDALUSIA -4,481.25 467.75 277.52 -5,226.52

ARAGÓN -724.83 53.68 -178.69 -599.82

ASTURIAS -751.65 19.17 -556.61 -214.21

BALEARIC ISLANDS -525.45 12.18 -401.55 -136.08

CANARY ISLANDS -1,514.04 38.65 -1,120.87 -431.81

CANTABRIA -258.86 7.60 -181.55 -84.90

CASTILE AND LEÓN -1,764.87 70.37 -1,048.91 -786.33

CASTILLA-LA MANCHA -1,615.14 85.24 -747.95 -952.43

CATALONIA -55.90 284.35 2,836.99 -3,177.23

CEUTA AND MELILLA -83.20 2.91 -53.55 -32.57

COMMUNITY OF MADRID 269.76 117.08 1,460.89 -1,308.22

VALENCIAN COMMUNITY -8,913.77 315.95 -5,699.35 -3,530.38

EXTREMADURA -206.05 59.72 401.51 -667.27

GALICIA -263.42 64.55 393.33 -721.30

MURCIA 465.48 147.72 1,968.33 -1,650.58

NAVARRE 2,349.31 53.43 2,892.85 -596.96

BASQUE COUNTRY 3,941.44 229.28 6,274.04 -2,561.88

RIOJA (LA) -339.45 5.02 -288.33 -56.14

Source: Own elaboration based on Ministry of Labor and Social Economy Database (01/11/2023).

212 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

Table 8. shifT-shaRe analysis of The numbeR of woRkeRs in CoopeRaTive soCieTies by peRioDs.

REGIONS

2005 - 2007 2008 - 2015 2016 - 2018 2019-2020

Total effect National

Effect

Competitive

Effect

Dynamic

Effect Total effect National

Effect

Competitive

Effect

Dynamic

Effect Total effect National

Effect

Competitive

Effect

Dynamic

Effect Total effect National

Effect

Competitive

Effect

Dynamic

Effect

ANDALUSIA -815.4 3,948.6 -1,465.6 -3,298.4 3,800.6 -6,215.2 7,443.9 2,571.9 820.40 4,991.60 -2,127.84 -2,043.37 -7,726.54 -1,258.51 -1,770.9 -4,697.14

ARAGÓN -110.1 471.5 -187.7 -393.8 -939.3 -535.4 -625.5 221.5 66.86 437.43 -191.50 -179.07 489.95 -144.43 1,173.4 -539.06

ASTURIAS -146.6 226.2 -183.9 -189.0 -599.5 -227.0 -466.4 93.9 160.98 188.55 49.61 -77.18 -138.79 -51.58 105.3 -192.51

BALEARIC

ISLANDS 273.8 178.6 244.4 -149.2 -572.9 -135.2 -493.6 56.0 25.49 111.50 -40.37 -45.64 -93.65 -32.77 61.4 -122.29

CANARY

ISLANDS -436.8 444.0 -509.9 -370.9 -952.3 -466.7 -678.7 193.1 32.23 379.41 -191.86 -155.32 -353.50 -103.98 138.5 -388.07

CANTABRIA 38.2 90.1 23.3 -75.3 -162.5 -107.4 -99.6 44.4 -84.77 73.96 -128.45 -30.28 -45.29 -20.44 51.5 -76.30

CASTILE

AND LEÓN -10.0 718.5 -128.3 -600.2 -1,697.1 -738.8 -1,264.0 305.7 575.38 636.35 199.53 -260.50 394.91 -189.34 1,290.9 -706.68

CASTILLA-LA

MANCHA 120.3 818.4 -14.5 -683.6 -1,200.3 -967.6 -633.1 400.4 -1,374.67 636.35 -1,750.52 -260.50 -395.81 -229.34 689.5 -855.96

CATALONIA 641.1 2,267.0 267.8 -1,893.7 -1,202.4 -2,847.5 466.8 1,178.3 3,598.97 2,597.75 2,064.64 -1,063.42 -656.34 -765.06 2,964.1 -2,855.4

CEUTA AND

MELILLA -14.5 30.0 -19.4 -25.1 25.7 -39.1 48.6 16.2 -44.43 26.14 -59.86 -10.70 -4.92 -7.84 32.2 -29.27

COMMU-

NITY OF

MADRID

1,340.5 983.0 1,178.6 -821.1 -1,095.6 -1,373.9 -290.3 568.5 720.33 1,162.22 33.88 -475.77 -1,761.57 -315.01 -270.8 -1,175.71

VALENCIAN

COMMU-

NITY

589.4 3,402.8 29.1 -2,842.4 -6,877.9 -4,455.7 -4,266.0 1,843.8 -670.72 3,806.50 -2,918.98 -1,558.24 -8,702.94 -850.09 -4,680.1 -3,172.7

EXTREMA-

DURA -82.9 475.0 -161.1 -396.8 -737.0 -520.3 -432.0 215.3 180.41 419.69 -67.47 -171.80 1,857.32 -160.67 2,617.7 -599.68

GALICIA -136.3 513.2 -220.8 -428.7 -334.7 -709.9 81.4 293.8 447.29 590.07 98.77 -241.55 -141.02 -173.68 680.9 -648.24

MURCIA -75.6 1,112.6 -258.8 -929.3 -308.0 -1,516.0 580.7 627.3 1,660.41 1,368.34 852.22 -560.14 157.57 -397.45 2,038.4 -1,483.39

NAVARRE 305.4 315.1 253.5 -263.2 459.7 -582.7 801.3 241.1 386.50 511.73 84.25 -209.48 -718.30 -143.74 -38.1 -536.50

BASQUE

COUNTRY 2,080.3 1,677.8 1,804.0 -1,401.5 1,649.7 -2,734.0 3,252.4 1,131.3 4,361.74 2,570.66 2,843.41 -1,052.33 -4,876.99 -616.88 -1,957.7 -2,302.3

RIOJA (LA) -202.2 90.7 -217.2 -75.8 -202.9 -72.6 -160.4 30.0 -8.87 51.94 -39.54 -21.26 -38.06 -13.52 25.9 -50.46

Source: Own elaboration based on Ministry of Labor and Social Economy Database (01/11/2023).

213

The resilienT employmenT of cooperaTive socieTies in relaTion To sdg-8

revisTa de economía mundial 67, 2024, 197-219

If we link the main ﬁndings of the analysis of variation rates and Shift-Share,

we identify those territories whose cooperatives are more resilient and have

greater potential to generate employment under different circumstances, such

as an economic crisis, the recovery phase, and a health crisis. The classiﬁcation

shown assigns the word “cooperatives” to those areas that show a positive

variation rate and/or a positive Competitive Effect.

The generation of cooperative, decent, and resilient employment is

concentrated in four regions: Catalonia, Galicia, Extremadura, and Murcia.

This is not the case in traditional Andalusian or Valencian cooperativism. Thus,

regions with an important cooperative culture such as the Valencian Community

or Andalusia do not have a greater development of cooperative employment

in adverse situations and in comparison, with regions with less cooperative

culture, such as the Community of Madrid (Barrios-González et al., 2023). These

results are complemented by the upward trend in the number of cooperatives in

Navarre and the Basque Country, which resulted in an increase in employment

during the period of crisis and recovery but not in the years of the health crisis.

4.3. employmenT pRojeCTion 2021-2025

Employment growth is positive except for Ceuta and Melilla (Figure 1).

The increase in hiring will be particularly notable in Aragón, Extremadura, the

Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, Castile and León, Catalonia, Murcia, and

the Basque Country.

fiGuRe 1. esTimaTeD RaTe of ChanGe of employmenT in CoopeRaTive enTeRpRises beTween The yeaRs

2021 anD 2025.

Source: Own elaboration based on Ministry of Labor and Social Economy Database (01/11/2023).

214 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

5. ConClusions

The answer to the initial question, “Do cooperative societies have a

countercyclical or a cyclical condition in Spain?”, is that Spanish cooperatives

have a cyclical condition in the face of economic cycles, but they have a

differential condition determined by employment, according to the type of

crisis and/or the phase of an economic crisis and according to the characteristics

of each territory.

The general trend in ﬁnancial and health crisis situations (economic crises)

is the reduction of cooperative employment. However, the results show that the

destruction of employment tends to be lower in cooperatives than in the rest

of the commercial enterprises. This would be a “cushioning” behavior (Perard,

2016) in the face of scenarios of declining domestic demand.

The ﬁrst conclusion is that there is a signiﬁcant weight of cooperative

employment in the future of some regions such as Catalonia, Murcia, and

Extremadura. Between 2019-2020, cooperative employment becomes of

great relevance for Aragón, Asturias, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands,

Cantabria, Castile and León, Castilla-La Mancha, La Rioja, Ceuta, and Melilla.

These territories saw their employment increase, or its fall attenuated thanks

to the Competitive Effect; they show their resilience and adaptation to

unpredictable situations.

Employment generation is different at the territorial level, i.e., the regional

and supraterritorial correlation is not directly proportional. This is proven

between 2005 and 2020, since there is no homogeneous behavior between

the different regions of Spain. The type of activity conducted by Spanish

cooperatives is a key element in determining the differential condition of the

results. This is a future line of research.

The recent economic crisis is linked to several reasons, both the ﬁnancial

crisis (2008-2015) and the health crisis (2019-2020) where the economy

experienced a reduction in consumption. Looking at the effects of employment

behavior in the regions, some similar and differential patterns are observed.

The National Effect is negative for all regions in both periods, while the

Dynamic Effect was positive during the ﬁnancial crisis, and it was negative

in the health crisis. The health crisis affected the whole economy, and the

future of consumption patterns became uncertain, therefore, the generation

of employment or the moderation of the loss is justiﬁed by the Competitive

Effect, i.e., by the potential of the cooperatives in each territory.

The regions of Catalonia, Extremadura, Galicia, and Murcia show a

homogeneous behavior in a situation of ﬁnancial crisis, recovery, and health

crisis, where the rate of change in the volume of jobs or the Competitive Effect

was positive. These results suggest that the strategic management to face

threats using their strengths and opportunities was more successful; they knew

how to take advantage of the situation at that time and managed to increase

their hiring.

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The resilienT employmenT of cooperaTive socieTies in relaTion To sdg-8

revisTa de economía mundial 67, 2024, 197-219

Traditionally, Andalusia, Navarre and the Basque Country have shown great

strength in their cooperatives in the face of a period of economic recession,

but the same response to the COVID-19 health crisis was not observed. Thus,

as soon as the INE (National Statistics Institute) and the Ministry of Labor and

Social Economy update the data and extend the timeline to 2023, this scene

deserves a deeper analysis, an improved longitudinal analysis (Bretos, Errasti

& Marcuello-Servós, 2023), and one linked to other legal forms of Social

Economy, such as Labor Societies. With the caution due to the tentativeness

of the still existing data, Juliá, Bernal and Carrasco (2022) are contested since

the Spanish productive fabric generates more employment or destroys less

employment than cooperatives during the COVID-19 health crisis.

All these ﬁndings conﬁrm what has already been observed in other speciﬁc

studies such as the resilience of jobs in cooperatives (Barrios-González et al.,

2023; Sala-Ríos, 2023; Cancelo et al., 2022; Sala-Ríos et al., 2020). These

results ratify the heterogeneity of economic behavior among Spanish regions

and coincide with previous studies on the territorial impact of self-employment

in the Social Economy in Spain (Canalda, 2019). They too point out a claim,

for example, the signiﬁcant employment generation of Andalusia. Andalusia

reduces cooperative employment during the health crisis, inﬂuencing its

immediate capacity to generate employment. This seems to indicate that the

cooperative response in terms of employment will be different according to the

type of ﬁnancial and/or health crisis. Nevertheless, the latest crisis reinforces

cooperative employment as a resilient employment with positive predictions

in all regions, except for Ceuta and Melilla. Cooperatives in Spain practice the

Sustainable Development Goal 8 (SDG-8).

The results found in Spain on the resilience of cooperative employment are

like previous ﬁndings at the international and European level, such as those

in France and Italy. This work coincides with the institutional conﬁrmations

(European Parliament, ICA, ILO, CICOPA, United Nations-SDG) in making

visible the behavior of cooperative employment and the need to compare

cooperative employment in Spain with other European scenarios, such as Italy

and/or France, and non-European scenarios such as the United Kingdom and/

or South Korea.

An added value lies in the lines of work opened by these results. In the

ﬁrst place, the future development of this work should be aimed at extending

the methodology (cluster analysis), completing the time series analyzed and

observing the future behavior of cooperatives and worker-owned companies,

and their convergence in the regions. Especially, the interest lies in extending

the years related to the COVID-19 pandemic, 2020 and 2021, as well as

subsequent years (Barrios-González et al., 2023). It is believed that both

the contribution of the Social Economy (cooperatives and worker-owned

companies) to regional development and the exceptional nature of the current

situation suggest that the competent bodies make the effort to continue the

publication of the time series on cooperatives that was interrupted in 2020.

The National Statistical Plan 2021-2024 contemplates the updating of the

216 Macarena Pérez-Suárez · Isidora Sánchez-Torné

Statistics on Cooperative Societies and Labor Societies registered with the

Social Security. Employment could also be studied in greater depth considering

the type of cooperative, for example, the employment of worker or agricultural

cooperatives could be studied because they contribute to national cooperative

employment. It would be interesting to determine the impact of the PERTE

ESyEC on the cooperative business fabric and on the resilience of cooperative

employment. This would facilitate both the creation of new cooperatives in

emerging sectors and the development of those that are already working on

expansion, diversiﬁcation, and expansion into new markets. The development

of the business fabric would have an impact on generating more resilient

employment, and this would have a positive social impact.

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