Revista de economía mundial 67, 2024, 273-294

ISSN: 1576-0162

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.33776/rem.vi67.8170

Women Workers' InItIatIves In the FIeld oF the socIal and solIdarIty

economy as a space For transFormIng the domestIc care system:

potentIal and challenges In the Ibero-amerIcan sphere

InIcIatIvas de trabajadoras en el ámbIto de la economía socIal y

solIdarIa como espacIo transformador del sIstema de cuIdados

doméstIcos: potencIalIdades y desafíos en el ámbIto IberoamerIcano

Isabel Brito Cabeza

Universidad de Huelva

Centro de Investigación COIDESO

ibrito@gmail.com

Blanca Miedes-Ugarte

Universidad de Huelva

Centro de Investigación COIDESO

miedes@uhu.es

Recibido: febrero 2024; aceptado: abril 2024

abstract

A just socio-ecological transition demands a transformation of the care

system that ensures the sustainability of human life. This process entails

recognizing and revaluing unpaid care work, as well as improving working

conditions in this ﬁeld, which is characterized by the predominant contribution

of women, including many immigrants, within global care chains. This study

analyzes the possibilities and limits of the social and solidarity economy in this

transformation. Framed by the perspective of multilevel change and employing

a methodology that combines an innovative collaborative workshop with 54

stakeholders in the Spanish context with interviews with care cooperative

leaders in Honduras, Uruguay, and Spain, transformative strategies are revealed

to revalue these essential services and confront their structural challenges.

Keywords: Caring system, social and solidarity economy, multilevel

perspective, transformative innovation, gender.

resumen

Una transición sociecológica justa exige una transformación del sistema

de cuidados que garantice la sostenibilidad de la vida humana. Este proceso

implica reconocer y revalorizar el trabajo de cuidados no remunerado, así como

mejorar las condiciones laborales en este ámbito, marcado por la contribución

predominante de mujeres, incluyendo a muchas inmigrantes, dentro de

cadenas de cuidado de alcance global. Este trabajo analiza las posibilidades

y límites de la economía social y solidaria en esta transformación. Usando

como marco la perspectiva del cambio multinivel y con una metodología

que combina un innovador taller colaborativo con 54 agentes del contexto

español con entrevistas con líderes de cooperativas de cuidados en Honduras,

Uruguay y España, se revelan estrategias transformadoras para revalorizar

estos servicios esenciales y enfrentar los desafíos de estas iniciativas.

Palabras clave: Cuidados, economía social y solidaria, perspectiva

multinivel, innovación transformadora, género.

JEL Classiﬁcation/ Clasiﬁcación JEL: J16, I31, J23.

Revista de economía mundial 67, 2024, 273-294

1. IntroductIon

Feminist economics contributes signiﬁcantly to discussions on the socio-

ecological transition, highlighting the ecological and social interdependence

that characterises human existence. It underlines that the sustainability of life

essentially depends on an equitable care system that ensures its viability, as

pointed out by Perkins and Kuiper (2005), Herrero (2013, 2016), Pérez-Prieto

(2016), Carrasco (2014), Picchio (2001), Shiva (2005) and Raworth (2017).

The invisibilisation and devaluation of care work, predominantly undertaken

by women for free or under precarious working conditions, has been widely

discussed in the literature, which includes analyses, evaluations and policy

proposals aimed at transforming this system towards a more equitable

distribution of unpaid work and the digniﬁcation of paid work in this sector

(Dalla Costa, 1977; Federici, 2014; Picchio, 2001; Carrasco, Borderías and

Torns, 2011; Carrasco, 2001; Pérez-Orozco, 2006, 2014; Moreno, 2013;

Lázzaro, 2020; Boronat et al., 2021; Vega and Gutiérrez, 2014; Agenjo, 2021;

Jennings, 1993; Agyeman et al., 2003; Carosio, 2020; Martín-Palomo, 2009;

Torns, 2001; Daly and Lewis, 2000; Giusto-Ampuero, 2021; Bahn et al., 2020;

Batthyány et al., 2013; Razavi, 2007).

Globally, paid care work employs 381 million people, accounting for 11.5%

of total employment, with 65.3% women, including nursing, medical and

personal care workers (ILO, 2019).

In households, women perform 76.2 per cent of all unpaid care work,

spending 3.2 times more time on it than men (ILO, 2019). Regarding paid work,

there are an estimated 76 million domestic workers worldwide (76% women),

80% of whom work informally (in Europe 64% of women and 56% of men, and

in Latin America 74% and 68% respectively). Wages in this sector are barely

56% of the average wage in other sectors, a proportion systematically lower

for women (Bonnet, Carré and Vanek, 2022).

Globalisation has exacerbated precarious work, especially for women in

the global south, who are part of global care chains, a phenomenon widely

documented (Hochschild, 2000; Yeates, 2005; Pérez-Orozco and López-

Gil, 2016; Roseman, Barber and Neis, 2015; Kofman and Raghuram, 2010;

Williams, 2011). There are an estimated 14 million migrant domestic workers,

73 per cent of whom are women (ILO, 2015, 2021).

Globally, 27% of people employed in domestic services are employed

through service providers, a ﬁgure that rises to 70% in Europe (Bonnet, Carré

276 Isabel Brito Cabeza · Blanca Miedes-Ugarte

and Vanek, 2022), representing 9.5 million jobs, with a projected growth of 8

million more by 2030 (European Commission, 2021).

The social economy (SE) has discovered a market niche in this sector,

beneﬁting from low entry barriers to facilitate the incorporation of women into

the labour market. In Spain, updated studies, although limited, indicate that the

SE constitutes 8% of the total number of enterprises and entities in the ﬁeld of

care services, amounting to approximately 3,139 enterprises. Of these, 79.4%

are cooperatives, and a signiﬁcant 62.4% are classiﬁed as micro-enterprises

with revenues of less than 2 million euros. It is estimated that they provide

employment to more than 200,000 people, of which a remarkable 75.4% are

women, representing about 2% of total employment in the SE. Some 18% of

these enterprises specialise in home care (CEPES, 2023). The SE shows a strong

presence in Andalusia, Extremadura, Murcia, Navarra and the Basque Country,

accounting for 1.8% of the care sector in these regions (CEPES, 2022).

SE has contributed to improving working conditions in the sector, with

80% of care companies reporting sustainability and 62% implementing work-

life balance policies. In addition, 58% have established emotional care spaces

for female workers. However, professionalisation is still limited, with only

34% of these companies promoting it. In addition, there is a reproduction of

intersectional inequalities, evidenced by the fact that 12% of female workers are

racialised, perpetuating existing inequalities in all sectors (CEPES, 2022).

In this environment, social and solidarity economy (SSE) initiatives have

emerged, driven by workers’ own movements and organisations. As a main

distinguishing feature, the SSE adds a broader ethical and philosophical

dimension to its objectives than social economy entities, advocating for deeper

change in economic, social, and environmental relations (CIRIEC, 2017). SSE

initiatives in the ﬁeld of care, which have received little academic attention so

far, go beyond mere labour insertion and improvement of working conditions,

as they also promote training, political empowerment for the defence of rights

in a highly informal and precarious environment, as well as the recognition and

revaluation of care work. The fundamental purpose is a profound transformation

of the care system (Duque et al., 2022; Castro, Barroso and Flores, 2017).

This study focuses on understanding how these initiatives can inﬂuence such

a transformation, examining the conditions in which they are developed

and identifying the main challenges and drivers of their development. The

objectives (section 2), the framework of analysis from a multi-level perspective

of transformative innovation (section 3), the methodology employed (section

4), the results and their discussion (section 5), as well as the conclusions and

limitations of the study (section 6) are detailed below.

2. objectIves.

First, to study the speciﬁc circumstances and obstacles faced by emerging

social and solidarity economy (SSE) projects led by women workers in the

current context of Spain, Honduras and Uruguay.

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Secondly, from the multilevel approach of transformative innovation (Gallart

et al., 2020), to identify public policy proposals formulated by the SSE sector,

collecting and analysing the visions of a broad spectrum of actors, including

government entities, households, care organisations and SSE enterprises,

focusing on the Spanish context.

Thirdly, to contrast the public policy proposals identiﬁed with the needs

expressed by SSE initiatives and to determine the key points for effective

advocacy.

3. FrameWork oF analysIs: the care system and the multI-level perspectIve oF

change and InnovatIon.

We have opted for the Multilevel Perspective (MLP) of change framework

(Geels, 2002, 2011; Geels & Schot, 2007; Smith et al. 2010; Schot &

Steinmueller, 2018) because of its robust heuristic capacity, which has been

shown to be useful for the purpose of assessing the transformative capacity

of policy proposals in various domains (Ghosh et al., 2020 and Gallart et al.,

2020).

The usefulness of the MLP lies in its ability to disaggregate and analyse

socio-technical systems at three distinct levels: the macro, represented by the

“landscape” which includes cultural and global factors; the meso, constituted

by the “socio-technical regimes” comprising stabilising practices and norms;

and the micro, comprising the “niches” where innovations are generated.

Transitions occur when a profound change in the landscape destabilises the

existing regime and creates windows of opportunity for transformation, and

this requires that innovative niches are strengthened by their own learning, the

consolidation of their processes, and that they ﬁnd support from actors with

the power to change.

The analysis of the care system, traditionally studied in terms of work

and employment (Bonnet, Carré and Vanek, 2022; ILO, 2022; ILO, 2019;

WCM, 2023; EP, 2022; CIRIEC, 2017; CEPES, 2022, 2023), is enriched by

understanding it as a socio-technical system that, despite its high human

labour requirement, incorporates technology to varying degrees. Recognising it

in this way inserts it into the broader debate on the socio-ecological transition

of socio-technical systems, giving it visibility and relevance. This approach

highlights the importance of the care sector for the resilience and sustainability

of human life (Carrasco, 2001; Picchio, 2001, Perez-Orozco, 2006; Agenjo,

2021) and brings critical issues such as gender equality and power issues to

the centre of the debate.

In the case of care systems, profound changes such as the irreversible

incorporation of women into the world of work, the evolution of feminist

thought, and the ageing of the population, combined with more drastic

disruptions, such as the global pandemic of COVID-19 or the emergence of

artiﬁcial intelligence, highlight the unsustainability of the current care system

and create windows of opportunity for major transformations to take place.

278 Isabel Brito Cabeza · Blanca Miedes-Ugarte

Whether this happens in one direction or the other will depend largely on the

existence and maturity of the available alternatives.

To identify the state of development of niches (in this case SSE initiatives),

as well as the scope of transformative policies, the MLP proposes three

macro-processes of analysis: 1) actions to build and strengthen niches; 2) the

expansion and scaling up of niches into functioning regime practices; 3) niche

and/or landscape pressures that open windows of opportunity and unblock

regimes. Within these macro-processes, 12 transformative scopes are deﬁned

(Ghosh et al., 2020 and Gallart et al., 2020) (FIgure 1) against which policy

proposals are classiﬁed and evaluated (see section 5.4).

4. methodology.

This work is methodologically grounded in the principles of action research,

which has a long tradition both in feminist studies (Bleijenbergh, 2023; Frisby,

Maguire, & Reid, 2009; Gatenby & Humphries, 2000; Fonow & Cook, 1991;

Lather, 1991; Reinharz, 1992) and in the ﬁeld of SSE (Greenwood & Levin,

FIgure 1. tWelve transFormatIve outcomes.

Source: Adapted from Geels and Scott, (2007) and Gallart et al. (2020)

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2006). It is an approach committed to social change and the empowerment

of the most disadvantaged groups and emphasises the participation of the

groups involved in the production of knowledge itself (Lewin, 1946; Fals-Borda

& Rahman, 1991; Sommer, 1987; Reason, 1994).

From a research perspective, the methodology responds to the objective

of understanding the reality faced by emerging women’s movements in the

development of SSE initiatives in the ﬁeld of care (ﬁrst objective) and to identify

levers for their development through the three levels proposed by the MLP

(objectives two and three). From an action perspective, the research-action

process, which is part of an ongoing doctoral thesis project, will contribute to

the empowerment process of these initiatives, designing, implementing, and

evaluating tools to improve the capacities of the partners both from the point

of view of their professionalisation and their political advocacy.

The methodology in this article combines in-depth interviews with leaders

of three initiatives selected as ﬁelds of action-research in different contexts

(Spain, Uruguay, Honduras) with a collaborative workshop with 54 key actors

of the sector in the Spanish context and is justiﬁed by the need to understand

in depth the experiences and perceptions of the participants, and to collect

their speciﬁc proposals, recognising that it is the actors confronted daily with

the practice of care in the context of the SSE who best know their needs, who

have to lead the processes of advocacy for change, as well as those who have

to implement the transformations.

For the three case studies, women’s cooperatives were selected from

self-organised movements in countries with differentiated care systems and

different positions in relation to global care chains (Spain, a mainly receiving

country, Honduras, a mainly sending country, and Uruguay, a country with a

better balance between inputs and outputs). All of them are in an emerging

phase, but at different stages of development. These initiatives, being the tip

of the iceberg of larger social movements spread throughout Ibero-America

(Miralda, 2023), can be considered pioneers rather than isolated cases, hence

the interest in analysing them together.

Based on an exhaustive literature review in the ﬁeld of care economics

(Dalla Costa, 1977; Federici, 2014; Picchio, 2001; Carrasco, Borderías and

Torns, 2011; Carrasco, 2001; Pérez-Orozco, 2006, 2014; Moreno, 2013;

Lázzaro, 2020; Boronat et al, 2021; Vega and Gutiérrez, 2014; Agenjo, 2021;

Jennings, 1993; Agyeman et al., 2003; Carosio, 2020; Martín-Palomo, 2009;

Torns, 2001; Daly and Lewis, 2000; Giusto-Ampuero, 2021; Bahn et al., 2020;

Batthyány et al., 2013; Razavi, 2007), the interview design was structured in

17 categories and 41 questions. To analyse the responses in terms of the 12

transformative scopes of the MLP (Ghosh et al., 2020 and Gallart et al., 2020),

the 17 categories were aligned with the four corresponding types of scopes for

the phase of creating niches of success, which are those corresponding to the

emerging moment in which the cooperatives analysed ﬁnd themselves:

280 Isabel Brito Cabeza · Blanca Miedes-Ugarte

• Shielding: “characteristics of the movement”, “member proﬁles”,

“strengths”, “funding”, “linkages with the care sector” and

“achievements”.

• First and second order learning: “functioning”, “actions developed

by cooperatives”, “good practices”, “constraints”, “challenges” and

“evolution”.

• Networking: “communication channels”, “stakeholder relations” and

“advocacy”.

• Expectation navigation: “opportunities, motivations and expectations”.

The two-hour interviews were conducted between August and November

2023.

As for the collaborative workshop, it is a methodology that has been

widely used in various ﬁelds when it comes to identifying strategic planning

or roadmaps by multi-stakeholder and multi-level partnerships in different

contexts (Cornwall & Jewkes, 1995; Phaal, Farrukh, and Probert, 2007; Mor,

Warburton, and Winters, 2012; Ørngreen & Levinsen, 2017; Pontis, 2022). In

this case, the authors took advantage of the call made by the Spanish Alternative

and Solidarity Economy Network (Red de Economía Alternativa y Solidaria,

REAS) for a meeting that brought together 54 actors of various kinds to design

a workshop that gathered their proposals on strategies, policies, and actions

to transform the care sector by promoting the social and solidarity economy.

These proposals were then classiﬁed according to their transformative scope

according to the MLP and analysed in relation to the needs expressed by the

cooperatives. Table 1 shows the main characteristics of the workshop.

table 1. characterIstIcs oF the collaboratIve Workshop.

Organisation Red de Economía Alternativa y Solidaria de Madrid, 18 June 2022, Impact Hub Alameda

(Madrid).

Objectives

1.Re-evaluate the social organisation of care by improving communication and coopera-

tion between all actors involved: public institutions, social and solidarity economy enter-

prises, local communities and associations, and people in need of care.

2.To progress on a roadmap for the implementation and strengthening of the social and

solidarity economy in the care sector, outlining speciﬁc steps and goals to be achieved.

3.Raise care needs and proposals to the responsible institutions to ensure an adequate

response.

Participants 54: migrants involved in the global care chain, cooperatives, public policy representatives,

academics.

Workshop dynamics

Following a roundtable discussion facilitated by members of the XXK Collective. In the

subsequent workshop, ﬁve working groups were formed, each representing a different

aspect of the social organisation of care, based on an adaptation of Razavi’s (2007)

“care diamond”. In addition to market enterprises, public policy and the community, SSE

organisations and the personal and household perspective were included, emphasising the

importance of the role of the “caregiver”.

Each group spent approximately 30 minutes discussing guiding questions with the aim of

identifying the needs of the care system and the role of each agent in addressing them.

Finally, there was a sharing session in which each group presented its conclusions and

proposals, which were represented on a mural illustrating the social organisation of care

using the ﬁgure of the “care diamond”.

Source: own elaboration.

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The methodological approach is shown in Figure 2:

FIgure 2. outlIne oF methodology phases.

Source: own elaboration.

282 Isabel Brito Cabeza · Blanca Miedes-Ugarte

5. results oF the analysIs.

5.1. maIn dIFFerences and convergences In the care systems oF spaIn, uruguay

and honduras.

In order to contextualise the analysis of the cooperatives within their

respective national care systems, the main similarities and divergences between

the care models in the three countries in question have been distinguished. In

all of them, there is a strong familistic tendency, characteristic of Southern

European welfare systems such as Italy and Spain (Ranci, 2009), and even

more marked in Latin American countries. In these models, care for dependent

persons has traditionally fallen to the family, with women occupying a central

position as primary carers (Flores and Castro, 2020). Labour precariousness

in this sector is evident in both Honduras (Miralda, 2023) and Spain (Monguí

et al., 2022), countries which, occupying different places in global care chains,

rely in part on the informal economy and migrant women to meet their care

needs, representing 58% in Honduras (Miralda, 2023) and 36% in Spain

(Oxfam Intermon, 2021).

Differences between countries in the provision of services and their level of

commodiﬁcation derive from national legislation. ILO Convention 189, which

regulates domestic work, has been ratiﬁed only by Uruguay, while Spain is in the

process of ratiﬁcation and Honduras has not ratiﬁed it (ILO, 2023). The Spanish

Dependency Law (2006) creates a social protection system that combines

elements of the Nordic model, ﬁnanced by taxes, and the continental model,

with basic services provided by the central government (Flores and Castro,

2020). Honduras lacks legislation regulating the sector (Miralda, 2023), and

Uruguay has implemented the National Care System with a universal approach

(Aguirre and Ferrari, 2014) and a personal assistance system that includes

agreements with private providers (Ministry of Social Development, 2023).

In terms of technology, there is a growth in the use of digital platforms

(Benedetti et al., 2022) and a commitment on the part of public policies to

incorporate technology in the sector. Spain is promoting technology in care

with the PERTE de Economía Social y Cuidados (Gobierno de España, 2022),

and Uruguay with home telecare services (Ministerio de Desarrollo Social,

2023). By contrast, in Honduras, as highlighted in interviews, it is the skills of

domestic workers that deﬁne the range of services offered.

5.2 maIn characterIstIcs oF the cooperatIves IntervIeWed.

Cooperative 1 in Honduras is still in its initial stage, expecting to be

formalised in the ﬁrst half of 2024. It arises from collaboration with the

Network of Domestic Workers of Honduras, with the support of the Centro de

Estudios de la Mujer de Honduras and the Swiss Cooperation Agency Brücke

Le Pont. Composed of 20 women at its inception, this cooperative focuses

on creating employment following the principles of solidarity of the social

economy, seeking decent working conditions and full rights. The urgency of

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their establishment is due to the challenges imposed by the pandemic and

recent natural disasters. So far, they have completed the necessary training

programme prior to their integration into the cooperative.

In Uruguay, Cooperative 2 was founded in January 2020, inspired by

the opportunities that the country’s National Care System provides for the

formation of cooperatives. Made up of 32 members, its goal is to provide

personal assistance services within the framework of the National Care System

and, in the longer term, to facilitate the integration of people with disabilities

into the labour market. To become full members, they go through a training

process and a probationary phase and are ﬁnancially supported by the

national cooperative authority for their training programmes.

Cooperative 3 in Spain was created in 2021, driven by an association of

women who chose to organise themselves during the pandemic. Its mission is

the political demand for the digniﬁcation of domestic and care work and the

creation of decent employment opportunities within the social and solidarity

economy, with a philosophy that includes class equality, decolonisation and

a gender approach. The cooperative has undergone signiﬁcant changes in

its initial composition and a dissociation from the original association due to

differences in the objectives and principles that should govern the cooperative,

reﬂecting the complexity and challenges involved in these formation processes.

5.3. care co-operatIves as proto-nIches For InnovatIon.

From the interviews conducted, we have identiﬁed the capacities and

obstacles that each cooperative faces to consolidate itself as a successful niche

within the MLP framework. The Spanish cooperative stands out for being a

pioneer in its area and for having an association with a track record in political

inﬂuence and social economy projects, in addition to its economic autonomy.

However, internal discordance around founding principles versus economic

sustainability, and limited time and knowledge, are signiﬁcant challenges.

The Uruguayan cooperative beneﬁts from the support of the National

Care System in services and training, a strong board of directors and speciﬁc

training. Its integration in cooperative networks (Freytes and Veleda, 2021)

and the alliance with cooperative development organisations are its strengths.

Challenges are the full involvement of all members and the need for a physical

space for their activities.

On the other hand, the Honduran cooperative takes advantage of its links

with the national network of domestic workers and its strong vocation and

sense of social justice, which are fundamental to its commitment to the project.

However, the main challenge lies in becoming the ﬁrst cooperative in the sector

in a country where these labour rights are not formally recognised and where

the approval of the ﬁrst law on domestic work is being sought (the labour

code of 1959 is still in force). Additional factors such as natural disasters and

extreme poverty impose particular challenges. Similar to the other cases, the

284 Isabel Brito Cabeza · Blanca Miedes-Ugarte

lack of time for training and information for members represents a shared

challenge.

Rather than innovative niches, these initiatives prove to be innovation

proto-niches (Ruiz and Rivero, 2022) because of their pioneering nature and

because this experimentation takes place under the pressure of the subsistence

of women workers and without a framework of public policy protection. Even

so, they are innovative, collaborative spaces for creating new solutions to the

serious problems they face (Duque et al., 2022). They are part of networks

of mutual support, and advocate for the promotion of policies that value

domestic work. By focusing on solidarity and equity (Novillo, 2015), they

aim to transform the norms and structures of the dominant employment and

welfare regime. The success of these niches depends not only on their ability

to function within their own context, but also on being recognised by regime

actors as an alternative to the care system, articulating operational models

that can be scaled up and replicated (Ghosh et al., 2020).

5.4. proposals For publIc polIcIes and actIons and theIr transFormatIve scope:

polIcIes, measures or actIons emanatIng From the Workshop.

The collaborative workshop organised in Madrid by the Alternative and

Solidarity Economy Network (REAS) in 2022 provided an opportunity to learn

about the position of the actors on the type of public policies and actions

needed to promote self-managed SSE initiatives. The classiﬁcation of the

resulting measures according to the 12 transformative scopes of the MLP

(Ghosh et al., 2020; Gallart et al., 2020) enables a systemic view of these

proposals, identifying the points of incidence of the different measures, locating

gaps, as well as analysing the potential of the set of proposals to articulate

the interactions between the three levels, niches, socio-technical systems and

landscapes.

The 54 participants in the workshop were based on Amaia Pérez-Orozco’s

proposals in her paper “Una política de cuidados como faro y palanca para

la transición ecosocial” (A care policy as a lighthouse and lever for eco-social

transition, Pérez-Orozco, 2019). The participatory dynamics in working groups

allowed these proposals to be debated and enriched from the perspective of

the different types of agents in the system. A total of 16 proposals resulted,

which have been classiﬁed as summarised in Table 2.

5.5. dIscussIon oF the proposals In relatIon to the needs oF the cooperatIves.

Despite the ambition and value of these initiatives, the interviews reveal

crucial practical needs for the consolidation of these emerging projects.

In terms of shielding, the experience of the Spanish cooperative, which

originated from a self-organised collective of migrant women, illustrates

that measures such as reservations of public contracts (IDEARIA, 2022) are

insufﬁcient if the participation of smaller initiatives is not facilitated. This

implies levelling the playing ﬁeld in access to contracts and strengthening the

technical-administrative training of cooperatives. Beyond professionalising

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care, it is vital to address the administrative regularisation of migrant women

entrepreneurs and workers, assisting them with their rights (civil registration,

children’s education, labour disputes, knowledge of cooperative management,

etc.).

It also highlights the importance of providing comprehensive training to all

the agents of the cooperative ecosystem: entrepreneurs, workers, families and

users. This training should cover the practical management of the values and

principles of the social and solidarity economy, as well as the opportunities

it offers. It is necessary to balance idealism and pragmatism, economic

sustainability with social action and political advocacy, as was observed to

table 2. polIcy proposals accordIng to the 12 transFormatIve scopes.

SCOPE SELECTION OF TRANSFORMATIVE PUBLIC POLICY PROPOSALS

Construction of niches

Shielding

Use sustainable public procurement to offer proximity and quality care services

(Tomás et al., 1998). Law 9/2017 of 8 November on the Public Sector expressly

regulates reserved contracts to facilitate access to public procurement for social

economy enterprises.

First order learning Strengthen training in the ﬁeld of care in general.

Implement digital education and training, in particular.

Second order

learning

Facilitate personal and collective empowerment by promoting spaces for collabora-

tion between social and solidarity economy enterprises that strengthen their links,

trust, and mutual learning.

Networking

Create an incubator of care policies: networking between social economy organi-

sations, public policy makers, academia, and civil society to identify alternative

practices that transform the care system.

Expectation navi-

gation

Creation of a care observatory: a space in which civil society participates, to debate

care and the direction of public policies that have an impact on quality of life, and

to review those that do not contribute to sustaining the system (Sajardo, 2007).

Expansion and niche integration

Scaling up Professionalisation of precarious care through a speciﬁc centre (Pérez-Orozco,

2019) to generate changes in users’ preferences.

Replication

Programme to strengthen leadership in organisations through continuous training

and the connection between countries of origin and destination and urban and rural

contexts.

Circulation Creation of international platforms on care that connect emerging initiatives and

generate strengths for their interlocution with States.

Institutionalisation

Law on care and sustainability of life: guaranteeing the universal right to care

(Pérez-Orozco, 2019), incorporating opportunities for social economy entities.

Cross-cutting review of sectoral policies: to encourage the participation of social

economy organisations and the population in the design and development of

policies with an impact on care.

Creating space for change in socio-

technical regimes

Disalignment and

destabilisation

Strategies and communication plans to raise the visibility of self-organised domestic

workers’ movements and their demands for social justice to put pressure on courts

and states.

Creation of mutual support networks in communities, which respond to 21st

century family models, to collectivise certain types of care, decommodify them and

disassociate them from women (IDEARIA, 2022).

Unlearning and deep

learning in regimes

Establishment of public control mechanisms for digital platforms, enterprises and

households: to favour opportunities for social economy initiatives (ILO, 2023).

Strengthening niche-

regime interaction

Promote the training of civil servants involved in public procurement in cooperati-

vism and the social economy.

Changes in landsca-

pee pressures

Promote participatory studies and analysis of the deﬁcits of care services, to gene-

rate changes in the system and a positive institutional outlook towards alternative

practices (Navarro and Rodríguez, 2004).

Shielding

286 Isabel Brito Cabeza · Blanca Miedes-Ugarte

be necessary in cooperatives in Spain and Uruguay. In Honduras, the focus

should be on strengthening advanced learning and developing leadership

and common visions that foster the resilience of the project in very adverse

conditions.

It is also necessary to strengthen skills in identifying market niches and

developing service offers that are clearly differentiated from conventional

economic options. In this respect, it is essential to promote networks and

spaces for dialogue between public actors, families, and users for a deep

understanding of speciﬁc needs. This will not only improve the quality of the

service but will also foster reciprocal commitment and improve the viability of

initiatives, helping to mitigate job insecurity.

Additionally, in terms of transforming mindsets at the macro level, it is

imperative to intensify communication campaigns to educate society about the

importance of choosing care services managed within the social and solidarity

economy. In Honduras, the importance of forging alliances with the media to

promote the valuing of the care and domestic work sector is underlined as a

crucial strategy to gain state recognition and pave the way for regulation.

This analysis contrasts with the limited scope for policy support in all three

countries.

In Honduras, it is non-existent; in Uruguay, the national care system’s

commitment to cooperatives is overshadowed by bureaucracy, lack of

accountability and the precariousness of state support, which hinder the

viability of initiatives and the emergence of new projects (Freytes and Veleda,

2021).

In Spain, the political response has been the PERTE de Economía Social

y Cuidados (Government of Spain, 2022), a so-called “strategic” project

that proposes “the promotion of the social economy and the strengthening

of sectors linked to care from the perspective of innovation and technology”.

However, from ecofeminist positions, there is criticism that it does not meet

the needs of “immaterial care”, nor does it resolve the precariousness of carers

(Bayas et al., 2022). Nor does it meet the challenge of giving a role to the

social economy (not to say SSE) in the care sector, addressing both sectors with

separate objectives, and it is not contributing to the decentralisation of care

management. Most of the funding, managed by the State, 59.3% of the total

(Maudos, 2023), is directed to large companies, which are more competitive

and with less attention to the care sector.

6. conclusIons and lImItatIons oF the study.

The study has identiﬁed key needs for the autonomy and sustainability

of social and solidarity economy initiatives, underlining the importance of

regulatory access to public care services and the reinforcement of their

professionalisation to differentiate them from the ordinary market. Training in

SSE is essential to foster a sense of belonging and to focus on the dignity

287

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revista de economía mundial 67, 2024, 273-294

of care work. The formation of strategic alliances, social visibility, and active

participation in care forums, as well as the collective defence of rights, are

fundamental.

These initiatives face common challenges, such as membership recruitment,

limited resources, internal conﬂicts, and economic sustainability, as well as

others related to migration or gender. The situation is complicated by the high

precariousness of the sector and the additional burden of family care on their

participants (Senent, 2014).

In terms of contrasting needs with the sector’s policy proposals,

the coherence of their approaches is acknowledged. However, effective

implementation of these policies requires consideration of the vulnerability

and size of the initiatives, providing additional support, such as strengthening

women’s leadership and training in the SSE. Clear communication of services

and best practices that highlight their role in dignifying care are needed.

At the policy level, the transformative impact is limited. The regulatory

advances and labour improvements achieved do not address the precariousness

of the care sector (Flores and Castro, 2020). In Spain, for example, the

Mediterranean model has not yet developed sufﬁciently transformative policy

proposals in terms of community care and public services (CIRIEC, 2017;

CEPES 2022, 2023). Despite this, initiatives are promoting professionalisation

and changing perceptions about the value of care, adapting to different

contexts, and attracting interest, although they are not yet achieving a critical

customer base within the social and solidarity economy (Castro, Barroso and

Flores, 2017).

Current policies must pay more attention to SSE proposals as a distinctive

space for SE, favouring its participation in the design of policies, supporting

the integration of these initiatives in the socio-technical care system (OVES,

2023) and allocating resources for their development. In addition, it is crucial

to inﬂuence the social mindset on care dynamics.

The main limitation of this study lies in the lack of detailed statistics in the

cooperative sector, which are necessary to assess the true impact of these

initiatives. This represents an obstacle for conducting quantitative research on

the care sector within the social economy, an issue that has already started

to be addressed by the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2018). Future

research should focus on developing tools and methods for data collection that

facilitate the creation of appropriate statistics for this purpose.

The present research, although exploratory in nature, establishes a

foundation for understanding the challenges and opportunities of these

alternatives. However, it is essential to delve deeper into the study of care

cooperatives, which aim to implement initiatives that transform the care system

beyond mere service provision. It is crucial to analyze in greater detail how

these cooperatives can contribute to the transition of public administration

towards a collaborative management model that effectively meets the diverse

care needs, considering regional particularities. This would facilitate the

development of mechanisms to ﬂexibilize existing legal frameworks, allowing

288 Isabel Brito Cabeza · Blanca Miedes-Ugarte

the incorporation of transformative projects from the social and solidarity

economy, and thus promote a change in the political, economic, and social

paradigm regarding the care system.

acknoWledgement

This research is funded by EU project 101071300 Sustainable Horizons

(HORIZON).

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