Revista de Educación,

Motricidad e Investigación

Variation in the Perceived Motor Self-Efﬁcacy of Spanish

Students throughout the Different Educational Stages

Variación en la Autoeﬁcacia Motriz Percibida por Alumnos Españoles

a lo largo de las distintas etapas educativas

Galán-Arroyo, C.

Physical and Health Literacy and Health-Related Quality of Life (PHYQoL),

Faculty of Sport Science, University of Extremadura, 10003, Cáceres, Spain; mamengalana@unex.es

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8750-0267

Polo-Campos, I.

University of Extremadura

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3298-1504

Gómez-Paniagua, S.

University of Extremadura

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1623-0316

Rojo-Ramos, J.

Physical Activity for Education, Performance and Health (PAEPH) Research Group,

Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain; jorgerr@unex.es

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6542-7828

VOL. 21 (2023)

ISSN 2341-1473 pp. 1-14

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

Abstract:

Motor self-efﬁcacy is the ability to cope with obstacles,

to control them and to solve them in the best possible

way. It is closely related to performance in physical edu-

cation and student health. The aim of this study is to me-

asure the performance of motor self-efﬁcacy in Physical

Education in students aged 10 to 18 years, analyzing the

differences between students according to their educa-

tional level and age. A total of 946 students responded

to ﬁve socio-demographic questions, in addition to the

Motor Self-Efﬁcacy Scale validated in Spanish. The Kolmo-

gorov-Smirnov test was used to determine the assump-

tion of normality, but since this assumption was not met,

non-parametric tests were used. In this sense, the Motor

Self-Efﬁcacy Scale score and the differences between

the different instructional cycles were analyzed using the

Kruskal-Wallis test. In addition, a pairwise comparison

was performed as part of a post hoc study to examine the

differences between the different groups. The relations-

hip between the mean scale score and the variable age

was investigated using Spearman’s Rho test. Subsequent-

ly, the relationship between motor self-efﬁcacy and parti-

cipants’ height, weight and BMI was examined using the

direct stepwise regression test. Finally, Cronbach’s alpha

was used to assess the reliability of the instrument. Signi-

ﬁcant statistical differences were observed between edu-

cational levels and their relationship with BMI, height and

weight, highlighting the importance of motor self-efﬁcacy

at different stages. Therefore, it would be interesting to in-

troduce educational methodologies that promote active

models and improve students’ motor self-efﬁcacy.

Keywords:

Motor self-efﬁcacy, students, educational level, physical

education, healthy lifestyle

Fecha de recepción: 20 de octubre de 2023

Resumen:

La autoeﬁcacia motriz es la capacidad para hacer frente

a los obstáculos, controlarlos y resolverlos de la mejor

manera posible. Está estrechamente relacionada con el

rendimiento en educación física y la salud de los alum-

nos. El objetivo de este estudio es medir el rendimiento

de la autoeﬁcacia motriz en Educación Física en alumnos

de 10 a 18 años, analizando las diferencias según su nivel

educativo y la edad. Un total de 946 estudiantes respon-

dieron a cinco preguntas sociodemográﬁcas, además de

la Escala de Autoeﬁcacia Motriz, validada en español. Se

utilizó el test de Kolmogorov-Smirnov para determinar el

supuesto de normalidad, pero como este supuesto no se

cumplía se utilizaron pruebas no paramétricas. En este

sentido, la puntuación de la autoeﬁcacia motriz y las dife-

rencias entre los distintos ciclos educativos se analizaron

mediante la prueba de Kruskal-Wallis. Además, se realizó

una comparación por pares como parte de un estudio

post hoc para examinar las diferencias entre los distintos

grupos. La relación entre la puntuación media de la es-

cala y la variable edad se investigó mediante la prueba

Rho de Spearman. Posteriormente la relación entre la au-

toeﬁcacia motriz y la altura, el peso e IMC a través de la

regresión directa por pasos. Por último, se utilizó el alfa

de Cronbach para evaluar la ﬁabilidad del instrumento.

Se observaron diferencias estadísticas signiﬁcativas en

diferencias estadísticas signiﬁcativas entre los niveles

educativos y su relación con el IMC, la altura y el peso,

destacando la importancia de la autoeﬁcacia motriz en

las diferentes etapas. Por lo tanto, sería interesante intro-

ducir metodologías educativas que promuevan modelos

y mejoren la autoeﬁcacia motriz de los alumnos.

Palabras claves:

Autoeﬁcacia motriz, estudiantes, nivel educativo, edu-

cación física, estilo de vida saludable

Fecha de aceptación: 11 de mayo de 2023

Variation in the Perceived Motor Self-Efﬁcacy

of Spanish Students throughout the Different

Educational Stages

Variación en la Autoeﬁcacia Motriz Percibida por

Alumnos Españoles a lo largo de las distintas

etapas educativas

Galán-Arroyo, C.

Physical and Health Literacy and Health-Related Quality of Life (PHY-

QoL), Faculty of Sport Science, University of Extremadura, 10003, Cá-

ceres, Spain; mamengalana@unex.es

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8750-0267

Polo-Campos, I.

University of Extremadura

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3298-1504

Gómez-Paniagua, S.

University of Extremadura

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1623-0316

Rojo-Ramos, J.

Physical Activity for Education, Performance and Health (PAEPH) Re-

search Group, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Extremadura,

10003 Cáceres, Spain; jorgerr@unex.es

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6542-7828

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 3 ]

1. Introduction The relationship between self-efﬁcacy and academic success has been investigated (Hernández-Ál-

varez etal., 2011). Multon etal. (1991) conducted a meta-study in which they examined 36 studies

that had some form of measure that allowed comparison of particular value judgments of efﬁcacy

with measures of performance on fundamental cognitive skills in various academic domains. They

arrived at a number of ﬁndings, one of which was that students with poorer academic performance

had greater predictive power for perceived self-efﬁcacy (Multon etal., 1991). Numerous investiga-

tions (Lent etal., 1994, 1997; Pajares, 1996) have pointed out that self-efﬁcacy is not an interchan-

geable notion and that its predictive power varies across subjects and even across different aspects

of a subject (Lent etal., 1997). Similar ﬁndings are reported by Pajares and Valiante ( 2002), who

found that perceived efﬁcacy decreased as pupils moved from elementary to high school. Studies

in the area of physical activity (PA) have also shown that adolescents’ conduct in connection to their

practice of PA is inﬂuenced by their perception of its efﬁcacy (Carroll & Loumidis, 2001; Dishman

etal., 2004; Welk & Schaben, 2004). However, studies concentrating on the subjective expectation

of being able to effectively handle motor situations have not been conducted in great numbers with

speciﬁc tools for evaluating self-efﬁcacy, which we could refer to as physical or motor self-efﬁcacy

(Hernández-Álvarez etal., 2011). People’s perceptions of their efﬁcacy, however, must be measured

in terms of speciﬁc judgments of their ability to complete tasks deﬁned in terms of the disciplinary

domain, as stated by Bandura (1997) and Zimmerman (1996), and supported by empirical studies

(Lent etal., 1994, 1997; Pajares, 1996; Pajares & Valiante, 2002).

The contributions of Bandura led to a signiﬁcant advancement in the understanding of self-efﬁcacy

(Bandura, 1986, 1992, 1997). According to the author, self-efﬁcacy is the belief that one is compe-

tent in the face of obstacles that arise in life, enabling one to approach these circumstances with

the conviction that one can control them and suitably lessen the uncertainty they bring (Bandura,

1997). Self-efﬁcacy affects the kind of activity a person engages in, becoming a sign of the amount

of time and effort, he or she commits to it as well as of how well they perform. Hernández-Álvarez

etal. (2011) claim that the concept of general self-efﬁcacy serves as the foundation for the concept

of motor self-efﬁcacy, which refers to a person’s sense of competence when faced with challenges

requiring their use of their motor skills and their ability to solve problems, involving participation

in physical activities. Insofar as it avoids doubts or conceptual conﬂicts with the deﬁnitions of other

terms like perceived motor skill or perceived motor competence, which are connected to the phy-

sical self-concept and the concept of motor self-efﬁcacy, on which this scale is based (Ortiz-Gómez,

2021), is coherent with the approach of our study. Batey etal. (2014) provide another deﬁnition,

pointing out that self-efﬁcacy is deﬁned in relation to views of one’s own ability to complete particu-

lar activities (motor) and to overcome obstacles that would hinder successful participation in a given

task (motor). A factor that appears to have a signiﬁcant impact on PA performance both within and

outside of physical education (PE) classes is motor self-efﬁcacy (Ortiz-Gómez, 2021). In addition, as

researchers have already noted, motor self-efﬁcacy takes into account a wide range of variables,

including—possibly—motivational variables and past successes (Perea-Chafé etal., 2016). Perceived

physical ability is included in these motor self-efﬁcacy elements as well, as it is vital to believe that

one is skilled in order to produce effective results (Ortiz-Gómez, 2021).

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 4 ]

2. Materials and Methods

Bandura (1997) contends that subjects with high self-efﬁcacy are more likely to attempt challenging

tasks. However, Hernández-Álvarez etal. (2011) contend that there are no studies on the perception

of self-efﬁcacy, extending it to the motor domain (motor self-efﬁcacy), that compare such perception

with the motor reality of the subject in question, and that allow us to know whether subjects tend to

overestimate or underestimate such perception. There is currently enough information available on

both the low rates of PA practiced by children and adolescents as well as the rise in the practice’s

abandonment during adolescence (Balaguer & Castillo, 2002; Duncan etal., 2004; Hernández-Álva-

rez etal., 2007; Roberts etal., 2004; Sallis etal., 2000; Velázquez etal., 2003). The perception of mo-

tor self-efﬁcacy is a construct that needs to be examined in this context, justifying the need to build

particular instruments, but it is important to improve the pertinent knowledge on the components

that inﬂuence this reality (Hernández-Álvarez etal., 2011). With motor self-efﬁcacy being a crucial

factor to consider in PE sessions, where students learn motor skills, the idea of boosting students’

perceptions of efﬁcacy in teaching programs could result in signiﬁcant physical, psychological, and

social advantages (Ortiz-Gómez, 2021). According to Ruiz-Pérez (1995), this perception of motor

efﬁcacy is related to the subjective feelings that children have and contribute to the development of

their motor actions. This perception in turn affects the choice of activities, the consistency of motor

practice, and the performance of motor actions. However, it should be noted that there are fewer

studies on motor self-efﬁcacy because it is a novel study variable and that no international research

has been identiﬁed on the topic (Ortiz-Gómez, 2021). Neither the lack of appropriate instruments,

neither the relationship between general and particular efﬁcacy in PA nor the latter’s association with

motor performance have received enough research (Hernández-Álvarez etal., 2011).

Because of the above, this study measures perceptions of motor self-efﬁcacy when engaging in PA

in students aged 10 to 18 years, analyzing the possible differences according to the educational

level to which the students belong and their age.

The sample size was chosen using the convenience sampling approach in accordance with non-pro-

bability sampling (Salkind, 1999). It may be said that a gender-balanced sample was produced since

48.3% of the sample (n = 457) was female and 51.7% of the sample (n = 489) was male. Of the stu-

dents, 19.10% were in the third cycle of primary education, which runs from ages 10 to 12, 18.40%

were in the ﬁrst cycle of compulsory secondary education, which runs from ages 12 to 14, 14.40%

were in the second cycle of compulsory secondary education, which runs from ages 14 to 15, and

24.00% were in the baccalaureate program (from 16 to 18 years of age). Age was 14.59 years on

average (SD = 2.08).

Participants had to meet the following criteria in order to be included: a) informed parental consent

b) enrollment in PE in Extremadura public schools in the last cycle of primary, ﬁrst or second cycle

of secondary school, or baccalaureate studies. The research was carried out in compliance with the

Declaration of Helsinki’s ethical guidelines, and the University of Extremadura’s bioethics committee

gave its approval to the protocol (Registration Code 71/2022).

2.1. Participants

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 5 ]

The Google Forms tool was used to create the sociodemographic characterization questionnai-

re, which consisted of ﬁve questions on the age, gender, educational level, province of residence,

and center environment of the participants. In addition, the validated Spanish version of the Motor

Self-Efﬁcacy Scale (E-AEM) was applied in the school population to measure the degree of motor

self-efﬁcacy (Hernández-Álvarez etal., 2011). This test consists of ten items that describe potential

scenarios that could arise when engaging in PA. It employs a Likert-type scale with values ranging

from 1 to 4, with 1 denoting “totally disagree” and 4 denoting “totally agree.” The scale’s application

yields a score based on the sum of all the components, with a minimum value of 10 signifying a low

degree of motor self-efﬁcacy and a maximum value of 40 signifying the highest level of self-efﬁcacy

perception. The authors reported a reliability value for Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89.

The contact information of all those who teach the ﬁnal cycle of primary school (10 to 12 years), the

cycle of compulsory secondary education (12 to 16 years), and high school (16 to 18 years) was

selected from the directory of public schools in Extremadura provided by the Department of Educa-

tion and Employment of the Regional Government of Extremadura. Informing the PE teachers of the

study’s subject, a model of the instrument, and the importance of informed parental agreement was

done by sending emails to all the centers that had been chosen. If the teacher consented to parti-

cipate in the study, it was asked that they set up a time through email for a member of the research

team to visit the school and interview the children in PE, providing that all informed parental con-

sents had been gathered. As soon as it was conﬁrmed that the participants’ parents or guardians had

signed the informed consent form, a researcher went to the school and gave each student a tablet

with a URL link to the questionnaire created using the Google Forms digital application. The resear-

cher then read out each item to make sure the participants had understood the instrument. To save

time and money and make it easier to store all the results in one database, it was decided to use an

electronic questionnaire. The questionnaire took an average of 10 minutes to ﬁnish. The information

was gathered between September and December 2022 in an anonymous manner.

The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 for MAC was used to evaluate the data

that had been gathered. The assumption of normality in the distribution of the data was examined

using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Nonparametric tests were utilized since the results of this test

showed that the assumption was false. The mean (M) and standard deviation are how descriptive

data are presented (SD). The E-AEM score and differences between the several instructional cycles

were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test. A pairwise comparison was done as part of a post-hoc

study to examine the differences between the several groups.

The link between the average scale score and the age variable was investigated using the Spear-

man’s Rho test. The relationship between the motor self-efﬁcacy and participants’ height, weight and

BMI was examined using the direct stepwise regression test. The variables could not be entered into

the predictive model unless they had a signiﬁcance level of less than 0.05. Cronbach’s Alpha was

used to evaluate the instrument’s reliability. Reliability levels between 0.60 and 0.70 can be regarded

2.2. Instruments

2.3 Procedure

2.4. Statistical Analysis

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 6 ]

3. Results

as acceptable, whereas values between 0.70 and 0.90 can be regarded as satisfactory, according to

Nunnally and Bernstein (1994).

Table 1 shows descriptive information for the E-AEM based on the mean (M) and standard deviation

(SD) for each educational level. It is observed that there are signiﬁcant differences at the general

level and speciﬁcally between the last cycle of primary school and the second cycle of secondary

school and between the latter and high school.

TABLE 1

Descriptive analysis and differences by education stage

Education stage

E-AEM M (SD) Third cycle of PrE

(A)

First cycle of CSE

(B)

Second cycle of

CSE (C) Baccalaureate (D) p

ΣE-AEM 31.41 (6.07) 32.43 (5.49) 31.50 (5.70) 30.32 (6.37) 31.87

(6.26)

p = .005**

p (A-B) .832

p (A-C) .012*

p (A-D) 1.000

p (B-C) .349

p (B-D) 1.000

p (C-D) .017*

Note: ΣE-AEM = Sum of scale AEM. Differences are signiﬁcant at **p < .01; *p < .05. M = Mean value; SD = Standard deviation; PrE =

Primary education; CSE = Compulsory secondary education. Each score obtained is based on a Likert scale (1–4): 1 “Totally disagree”,

2 “Quite disagree”, 3 “Quite agree”, 4 “Totally agree”.

Table 2 displays the correlations between E-AEM and the age by means of Spearman’s Rho test. It

can be seen that there are signiﬁcant differences (p = < .023).

TABLE 2

Correlation between E-AEM scale items with age

Items Age p (p)

ΣE-AEM .023* (.475)

Note: ΣE-AEM= Sum of scale AEM. Differences are signiﬁcant at *p < .05. Each dimension’s score is determined using a Likert scale

(1-4) = 1 “Totally disagree”, 2 “Quite disagree”, 3 “Quite agree”, 4 “Totally agree”.

Table 3 contains the regression of the E-AEM. It can be seen that in all the variables (BMI, height and

weight) there are signiﬁcant differences.

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 7 ]

Table 3

Model predicting changes in motor self-efﬁcacy

Model 1 (R2) = 0.04

Variable βSE t p

BMI -1.256 0.322 -3.897 < .001**

Height -20.188 8.385 -2.408 .016*

Weight 0.409 0.121 3.373 < .001**

Constant 67.541 13.537 4.989 < .001**

Note: Differences are signiﬁcant at **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05. Each dimension’s score is determined using a Likert scale (1-4) = 1 “Totally

disagree”, 2 “Quite disagree”, 3 “Quite agree”, 4 “Totally agree”.

The model (perceived motor self-efﬁcacy scores = 0.409 x Weight – 1.256 x BMI – 20.188 x Height)

predicted 4% of the variability observed in the E-AEM. Participants with higher weight, lower BMI

and shorter height have better E-AEM scores (p < .05).

Lastly, reliability was assessed using the Cronbach’s alpha coefﬁcient. According to Nunnally and

Bernstein (1994), the value of .90 achieved can be regarded as satisfactory.

This study arose from an interest in analyzing motor self-efﬁcacy in students between the ages of 10

and 18 years. To achieve these results, the educational levels of the students were examined using

the E-AEM. Age was also considered as an inﬂuential factor.

Firstly, with regard to the E-AEM, there are signiﬁcant differences according to educational level.

They can be observed especially in the last cycle of primary school (10-12 years) and the second

cycle of secondary education (14-15 years) and in the second cycle of secondary school and high

school (16-18 years). The literature has found that as age increases, motor self-efﬁcacy decreases

(Hernández-Álvarez etal., 2011; Ortiz-Gómez, 2021) attributed in part to decreased physical abilities

to complete a motor activity (García-Cantó etal., 2013) and the accumulation of mistakes, as well as

the growth of one’s own critical evaluations (Causgrove-Dunn & Watkinson, 1994). In both genders,

a steady decline in motor self-efﬁcacy is observed from adolescence onwards (Perea-Chafé etal.,

2016; Velázquez-Buendía etal., 2015), but especially in girls (Baños etal., 2018; Cardon & De Bour-

deaudhuij, 2008; Ortiz-Gómez, 2021; Perea-Chafé etal., 2016; Timo etal., 2016; Wu etal., 2003).

However, in the present research, it is found that it decreases until the second cycle of secondary

school, since in high school there is an upturn in which motor self-efﬁcacy rises again. This may be

due to the fact that good motor self-efﬁcacy favors the regular practice of PA in adolescents, as hi-

ghlighted in the study by Hernández etal. (2008). In this lin n at the national and international levels

with teenagers from Brazil and Spain who were between the ages of twelve and seventeen. When

Brazilian and Spanish school populations were compared, it was shown that the overall scores in

the Spanish population were much higher than in the Brazilian population, classifying both popula-

tions as having poor motor self-efﬁcacy (Velázquez-Buendía etal., 2015). Furthermore, in our study,

the E-AEM and the age of the students had a signiﬁcant correlation. Regarding age, a signiﬁcant

4. Discussion

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 8 ]

progressive decline in motor self-efﬁcacy scores was seen in Spanish adolescents in the twelve-to-

fourteen-year-old and fourteen-to-ﬁfteen-year-old age brackets, as well as between fourteen-to-ﬁf-

teen and sixteen-to-seventeen-year-old age brackets (Velázquez-Buendía etal., 2015). However, this

trend was not seen in Brazilian adolescents, despite the latter group’s signiﬁcant differences in the

various age brackets (Velázquez-Buendía etal., 2015).

On the other hand, the regression model also conﬁrms the inﬂuence of height, weight and BMI on

motor self-efﬁcacy. The literature indicate that teenagers’ better motor ability predicts their larger

involvement in sports and PA, but there are also other indicators that appear to foretell future PA,

such as body weight and BMI, among others (Oñate-Navarrete etal., 2021). Self-efﬁcacy has been

connected to good habits like controlling weight (Silva etal., 2018), being those who possess this

ability more dynamic and engaging in PA, which beneﬁts their health (Fraile-García etal., 2019). Ac-

cording to Hulteen etal. (2018) ‘s ﬁndings, teenage motor performance is signiﬁcantly inﬂuenced

by body weight. As a result, sedentary behavior declines, cardiometabolic risk is reduced, physical

ﬁtness is improved, and academic performance, ﬂexibility, self-esteem, and cognitive development

are all enhanced (Bardid etal., 2019; Lopes etal., 2019; Urrutia-Gutierrez etal., 2020). In this sense,

the body fat percentage, chance of being overweight, tendency toward physical inactivity, and levels

of PA and ﬁtness are all exponentially increasing in these teenagers with poor motor competence

and skill (Greier & Drenowatz, 2018; Hands etal., 2019). It has been discovered that the acquisition

of motor abilities, has a favorable impact on PA levels in later years, together with maintaining a

healthy body weight as an adult (Martin etal., 2021; Utesch etal., 2019). The acquisition of a healthy

lifestyle through the enjoyable performance of PA, as well as the actions taken during childhood

and youth, will therefore have an impact on the maintenance of these habits in the stages that follow

puberty (Garcia-Marin & Fernández-López, 2020; Martin etal., 2021). In the association between BMI

and motor self-efﬁcacy, statistically signiﬁcant differences were found; although, regardless of BMI,

students have a high capacity for physical exercise and many of them participate in extracurricular

sports. (Ahumada-Satoba & Flórez-Flórez, 2019). In another study, the ﬁndings revealed a signiﬁcant

correlation between BMI and enjoyment, perceived self-efﬁcacy (Carissimi etal., 2017), and motor

performance (Colella etal., 2020). In other words, the ﬁndings show the importance of children’s

perceived self-efﬁcacy and enjoyment in promoting motor development and an active lifestyle (Co-

lella etal., 2020). The indirect impact of psychological correlates on physical performance and mo-

tor skills in relation to BMI was quite considerable (Colella etal., 2020; Manley etal., 2014). Regard-

less of age, higher values of the body mass index have been linked to a deterioration in physical

efﬁciency (Colella etal., 2020). In addition, the ﬁndings showed that when compared to children of

healthy weight, children who were overweight or obese had worse mood scores (Nagy etal., 2017).

A person who is overweight or obese may have a self-perception of obesity that causes him or her

to feel unﬁt to engage in physical exercise, which could account for the increase in BMI and drop in

physical self-efﬁcacy score (Carissimi etal., 2017). Consequently, it should be noted that there is no

literature on height in relation to motor self-efﬁcacy; however, as it is part of BMI (Engin, 2017), this

variable will be taken into account in the previous paragraphs when discussing BMI.

In addition to the above, it’s vital to remember that research indicates that a number of morbidities

start developing in adolescence (Werneck etal., 2020). Adopting and maintaining an active lifestyle

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 9 ]

are among the protective factors; hence, the present issue is to successfully encourage physical

exercise during the ﬁrst 20 years of life (Werneck etal., 2020).

The present work, like other studies, has several limitations. First, the sociodemographic, educational

level, weight and height of the students may have inﬂuenced the results. Second, since the sample

was chosen randomly, caution should be exercised in presenting the results. Finally, it is important to

highlight the lack of previous studies evaluating the association between student height and motor

self-efﬁcacy. Some of the future lines of research would be to extend the sample to a national level

in all educational stages, to examine whether age has an inﬂuence, since there are some studies

that highlight that from primary education onwards motor self-efﬁcacy decreases, however, in high

school it increases again, therefore, it would be important to know whether they have carried out

PA throughout their lives and hence this rebound or whether it is due to other factors. In addition,

it would also be advisable to differentiate perceived motor self-efﬁcacy according to the gender of

the students. To this end, it is necessary to reach a consensus with other researchers from different

regions to collect all the necessary data. Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that the role played

by the entire community (family, friends and school) is very important, since it is vital to develop new

preventive health policies that can make them more motivated to continue practicing sports throu-

ghout their lives and to be aware of all the beneﬁts it can offer them as well as the disadvantages of

physical inactivity.

Motor self-efﬁcacy is closely related to students’ performance in Physical Education and health and

unfortunately, as age increases, motor self-efﬁcacy decreases. For this reason, the role of teachers is

important, as they are one of the educational agents who can most inﬂuence pupils’ perception of

PA. It is also essential to work collaboratively and cooperatively with parents, as well as the involve-

ment of all administrations in order to achieve all the beneﬁts offered by this practice. To this end,

it would be interesting to introduce educational methodologies that promote active models and

improve pupils’ motor self-efﬁcacy.

This study highlights that the E-AEM, depending on the educational level and age of the student,

can yield important and satisfactory results. It is also associated with variables such as BMI, weight

and height. Therefore, more research should be done and new educational methodologies should

be taught in order for students to have healthy lifestyle habits and improve their self-efﬁcacy. Howe-

ver, it should not be forgotten that it is important to know the motivations that students have to in-

culcate these habits in a playful way and that learning is above all intrinsic so that they can practice

them not only in their youth but also in adulthood and old age. The role of teachers is important

here, as they are one of the educational agents that can most inﬂuence the students’ perception of

PA. It is also essential to work collaboratively and cooperatively with parents, as well as to involve all

governments to achieve all the beneﬁts offered by this practice.

4.1. Limitations and future lines of research

4.2. Practical Implications

5. Conclusions

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 10 ]

Conceptualization, C.G.-A. and I.P.C.; Data curation, J.R.-R.; Formal analysis, S.G.-P., A.C.-P. and J.R.-R.;

Funding acquisition, A.C.-P.; Investigation, C.G.-A., I.P.-C. and J.R.-R.; Methodology, I.P.C. and S.G.-P.;

Project administration, C.G.-A. and J.R.-R.; Resources, A.C.-P.; Software, S.G.-P.; Supervision, A.C.-P.

and J.R.-R.; Validation, S.G.-P.; Writing – original draft, C.G.-A., I.P.-C. and S.G.-P.; Writing – review &

editing, C.G.-A., A.C.-P. and J.R.-R.. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the

manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

The research was carried out in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki’s ethical guidelines, and

the University of Extremadura’s bioethics committee gave its approval to the protocol (Registration

Code 71/2022)

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

The datasets used during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reaso-

nable request.

The authors would like to acknowledge the participants to make possible this study. We also thank

the Universidad de Las Américas for their support of the Open Access initiative.

The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

Ahumada-Satoba, S. M., & Flórez-Flórez, M. L. (2019). Autoeﬁcacia en la actividad física en niños,

índice de masa corporal y nivel de actividad física de sus padres. Salud Uninorte, 34(2), 393-408.

https://doi.org/10.14482/sun.34.2.612.04

Balaguer, I., & Castillo, I. (2002). Actividad física, ejercicio físico y deporte en la adolescencia tempra-

na. Estilos de Vida en la Adolescencia, 19, 37-64.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory (pp. xiii, 617).

Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Bandura, A. (1992). Exercise of personal agency through the self-efﬁcacy mechanism. In R. Schwarzer

(Ed.), Self-efﬁcacy: Thought control of action (pp. 3-38). Hemisphere Publishing Corp.

6. Author Contributions

7. Funding

8. Institutional Review Board Statement

9. Informed Consent Statement

10. Data Availability Statement

11. Acknowledgments

12. Conﬂicts of Interest

13. References

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 11 ]

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efﬁcacy: The exercise of control (pp. ix, 604). W H Freeman/Times Books/

Henry Holt & Co.

Baños, R., Ortiz-Camacho, M. del M., Baena-Extremera, A., & Zamarripa-Rivera, J. (2018). Efecto del

género del docente en la importancia de la Educación Física, clima motivacional, comportamien-

tos disruptivos, la intención de práctica futura y rendimiento académico. Retos. Nuevas Tenden-

cias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 33, 252-257. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.

v0i33.59991

Bardid, F., Vannozzi, G., Logan, S. W., Hardy, L. L., & Barnett, L. M. (2019). A hitchhiker’s guide to as-

sessing young people’s motor competence: Deciding what method to use. Journal of Science

and Medicine in Sport, 22(3), 311-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2018.08.007

Batey, C. A., Missiuna, C. A., Timmons, B. W., Hay, J. A., Faught, B. E., & Cairney, J. (2014). Self-efﬁcacy

toward physical activity and the physical activity behavior of children with and without Develop-

mental Coordination Disorder. Human Movement Science, 36, 258-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

humov.2013.10.003

Cardon, G. M., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. M. M. (2008). Are Preschool Children Active Enough? Objec-

tively Measured Physical Activity Levels. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79(3), 326-

332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2008.10599496

Carissimi, A., Adan, A., Tonetti, L., Fabbri, M., Hidalgo, M. P., Levandovski, R., Natale, V., & Martoni, M.

(2017). Physical self-efﬁcacy is associated to body mass index in schoolchildren. Jornal de Pedia-

tria, 93(1), 64-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2016.04.011

Carroll, B., & Loumidis, J. (2001). Children’s Perceived Competence and Enjoyment in Physical Ed-

ucation and Physical Activity Outside School. European Physical Education Review, 7(1), 24-43.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X010071005

Causgrove Dunn, J. L., & Watkinson, E. Jane. (1994). A Study of the Relationship between Physi-

cal Awkwardness and Children’s Perceptions of Physical Competence. Adapted Physical Activity

Quarterly, 11(3), 275-283. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.11.3.275

Colella, D., Monacis, D., & D’Arando Cristina. (2020). Motor Performances in relation to perceived

physical self-efﬁcacy, enjoyment and BMI in Primary School Children. European Journal of Physi-

cal Education and Sport Science, 6(3), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.3706998

Dishman, R., Motl, R. W., Saunders, R., Felton, G., Ward, D. S., Dowda, M., & Pate, R. R. (2004). Self-ef-

ﬁcacy partially mediates the effect of a school-based physical-activity intervention among ado-

lescent girls. Preventive Medicine, 38(5), 628-636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2003.12.007

Duncan, M. J., Al-Nakeeb, Y., Nevill, A., & Jones, M. V. (2004). Body image and physical activity in

British secondary school children. European Physical Education Review, 10(3), 243-260. https://

doi.org/10.1177/1356336X04047125

Engin, A. (2017). The Deﬁnition and Prevalence of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome. En A. B. Engin

& A. Engin (Eds.), Obesity and Lipotoxicity (Vol. 960, pp. 1-17). Springer International Publishing.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48382-5_1

Fraile-García, J., Tejero-González, C. M., Esteban-Cornejo, I., & Veiga, Ó. L. (2019). Asociación en-

tre disfrute, autoeﬁcacia motriz, actividad física y rendimiento académico en educación física.

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 12 ]

Retos. Nuevas Tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 36, 58-63. https://doi.

org/10.47197/retos.v36i36.63035

García-Cantó, E., Rodríguez-García, P. L., Pérez-Soto, J. J., Moral-García, J. E., López-Miñarro, P. Á., &

López-Villalba, F. J. (2013). Autopercepción de competencia motriz y práctica físico-deportiva en

alumnos de 10 a 12 años de Molina de Segura (Murcia- España). Acción Motriz, 11(1), 47-58.

Garcia-Marin, P., & Fernández-López, N. (2020). Asociación de la competencia en las habilidades

motrices básicas con las actividades físico-deportivas extracurriculares y el índice de masa cor-

poral en preescolares. Retos. Nuevas Tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 38,

33-39. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v38i38.71896

Greier, K., & Drenowatz, C. (2018). Bidirectional association between weight status and motor skills

in adolescents: A 4-year longitudinal study. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 130(9-10), 314-320.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-017-1311-y

Hands, B., Chivers, P., Grace, T., & McIntyre, F. (2019). Time for change: Fitness and strength can be

improved and sustained in adolescents with low motor competence. Research in Developmental

Disabilities, 84, 131-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.07.009

Hernández-Álvarez, J. L., Velázquez-Buendía, R., Alonso-Curiel, D., Garoz-Puerta, I., López-Crespo,

C., López-Rodríguez, Á., Maldonado-Rico, A. F., Martínez-Gorroño, M. E., Moya-Morales, J. M., &

Castejón-Oliva, F. J. (2007). Evaluación de ámbitos de la capacidad biológica y de hábitos de

práctica de actividad física: Estudio de la población escolar española. Revista de Educación, 343,

177-198.

Hernández-Álvarez, J.-L., Velázquez-Buendía, R., Martínez, M. E., Garoz-Puerta, I., López-Crespo, C., &

López-Rodríguez, Á. (2008). Frecuencia de actividad física en niños y adolescentes: Relación con

su percepción de autoeﬁcacia motriz, la práctica de su entorno social y su satisfacción con la Edu-

cación Física. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 31(1), 79-92. https://doi.org/10.1174/021037008783487129

Hernández-Álvarez, J. L., Velázquez-Buendía, R., Martínez-Gorroño, M. E., Garoz-Puerta, I., & Teje-

ro-González, C. M. (2011). Escala de autoeﬁcacia motriz: Propiedades psicométricas y resultados

de su aplicación a la población escolar española. Revista de Psicologia del Deporte, 20(1), 13-28.

Hulteen, R. M., Morgan, P. J., Barnett, L. M., Stodden, D. F., & Lubans, D. R. (2018). Development

of Foundational Movement Skills: A Conceptual Model for Physical Activity Across the Lifespan.

Sports Medicine, 48(7), 1533-1540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0892-6

Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1997). Discriminant and predictive validity of academic

self-concept, academic self-efﬁcacy, and mathematics-speciﬁc self-efﬁcacy. Journal of Counseling

Psychology, 44(3), 307-315. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.44.3.307

Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a Unifying Social Cognitive Theory of Career

and Academic Interest, Choice, and Performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45(1), 79-122.

https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027

Lopes, L., Silva Mota, J. A. P., Moreira, C., Abreu, S., Agostinis Sobrinho, C., Oliveira-Santos, J., Olivei-

ra, A., Okely, A., & Santos, R. (2019). Longitudinal associations between motor competence and

different physical activity intensities: LabMed physical activity study. Journal of Sports Sciences,

37(3), 285-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2018.1497424

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 13 ]

Manley, D., Cowan, P., Graff, C., Perlow, M., Rice, P., Richey, P., & Sanchez, Z. (2014). Self-Efﬁcacy,

Physical Activity, and Aerobic Fitness in Middle School Children: Examination of a Pedometer

Intervention Program. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 29(3), 228-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

pedn.2013.10.011

Martin, E. M., True, L., Pfeiffer, K. A., Siegel, S. R., Branta, C. F., Wisner, D., Haubenstricker, J., & Seefeldt,

V. (2021). An Examination of Sport Participation Tracking and Adult Physical Activity for Partici-

pants of the Michigan State University Motor Performance Study. Measurement in Physical Educa-

tion and Exercise Science, 25(1), 35-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367X.2020.1720690

Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efﬁcacy beliefs to academic out-

comes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(1), 30-38. https://doi.

org/10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30

Nagy, M. R., O’Sullivan, M. P., Block, S. S., Tooley, T. R., Robinson, L. E., Colabianchi, N., & Hasson, R.

E. (2017). Affective Responses to Intermittent Physical Activity in Healthy Weight and Overweight/

Obese Elementary School-Age Children. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 14(11), 845-851.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2016-0552

Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. McGraw-Hill.

Oñate-Navarrete, C. J., Aranela-Castro, S. C., Navarrete-Cerda, C. J., & Sepúlveda-Urra, C. A. (2021).

Asociación del enfoque en competencia motora y habilidades motrices, con la mantención de

la adherencia a la actividad física en adolescentes: Una revisión de alcance. Retos. Nuevas Ten-

dencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 42, 735-743. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.

v42i0.86663

Ortiz-Gómez, A. (2021). Autoconcepto, competencia motriz y autoeﬁcacia motriz: Relaciones e in-

ﬂuencia sobre la práctica de actividad física del alumnado de Educación Primaria de la Comuni-

dad de Madrid [Doctoral Doctoral]. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-Efﬁcacy Beliefs in Academic Settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4),

543-578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pajares, F., & Valiante, G. (2002). Students’ self-efﬁcacy in their self-regulated learning strategies: A de-

velopmental perspective. Psychologia, 45(4), 211-221. https://doi.org/10.2117/psysoc.2002.211

Perea-Chafé, J., Parra-Camacho, D., & Pérez-Campos, C. (2016). Análisis de la percepción del alum-

nado de educación secundaria sobre su grado de autoeﬁcacia motriz en relación a la materia de

Educación Física. Calidad de Vida y Salud, 9(2), 104-119.

Roberts, C., Tinjälä, J., & Komkov, A. (2004). Physical activity. En Candace Currie, W. Settertobulte, A.

Morgan, R. Smith, O. Samdal, & V. Barnekow Rasmussen (Eds.), Young people’s health in context:

Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: International report from the 2001/2002

survey (pp. 90-98). World Health Organization. Regional Ofﬁce for Europe.

Ruiz-Pérez, L. M. (1995). Concepciones cognitivas del desarrollo motor humano. Revista de Psicolo-

gía General y Aplicada: Revista de la Federación Española de Asociaciones de Psicología, 48(1),

47-57.

Salkind, N. J. (1999). Métodos de investigación. Pearson Educación.

https://doi.org/10.33776/remo.vi21.7739

[ 14 ]

Sallis, J. F., Prochaska, J. J., & Taylor, W. C. (2000). A review of correlates of physical activity of chil-

dren and adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, 963-975. https://doi.

org/10.1097/00005768-200005000-00014

Silva, C., Fernández, N., & Rodríguez, N. (2018). Depresión, ansiedad y autoeﬁcacia para bajar de peso

en mujeres en tratamiento nutricional. Psicología y Salud, 29(1), 41-49. https://doi.org/10.25009/

pys.v29i1.2567

Timo, J., Sami, Y.-P., Anthony, W., & Jarmo, L. (2016). Perceived physical competence towards physi-

cal activity, and motivation and enjoyment in physical education as longitudinal predictors of ad-

olescents’ self-reported physical activity. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19(9), 750-754.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2015.11.003

Urrutia-Gutierrez, S., Luis-de Cos, I., Arribas-Galarraga, S., & Luis-de Cos, G. (2020). Evaluación de la

precisión de percepción de competencia motriz en adolescentes. Publicaciones, 50(1), 341-355.

https://doi.org/10.30827/publicaciones.v50i1.15990

Utesch, T., Bardid, F., Büsch, D., & Strauss, B. (2019). The Relationship Between Motor Competence

and Physical Fitness from Early Childhood to Early Adulthood: A Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine,

49(4), 541-551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01068-y

Velázquez Buendía, R., Hernández-Álvarez, J. L., Garoz-Puerta, I., & Martínez-Gorroño, M. E. (2015).

Auto-eﬁcacia motriz, educación física y actividad física en adolescentes brasileños y españoles /

Motor Self-Efﬁcacy, Physical Education and Physical Activity in Brazilian and Spanish Adolescents.

Revista Internacional de Medicina y Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte, 60(2015), 631-

646. https://doi.org/10.15366/rimcafd2015.60.002

Velázquez, R., Castejón, F., García del Olmo, M., Hernández, J., López, C., & Maldonado, A. (2003).

El deporte, la salud y la formación en valores y actitudes de los niños, niñas y adolescentes. Una

investigación en la Comunidad de Madrid. Pila Teleña.

Welk, G. J., & Schaben, J. A. (2004). Psychosocial Correlates of Physical Activity in Children-A Study

of Relationships When Children Have Similar Opportunities to Be Active. Measurement in Physical

Education and Exercise Science, 8(2), 63-81. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327841mpee0802_2

Werneck, A. O., Fernandes, R. A., & Silva, D. R. (2020). Understanding biological maturation and mo-

tor competence for physical activity promotion during the ﬁrst years of life. Translational Pediat-

rics, 9(1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2020.01.02

Wu, T.-Y., Pender, N., & Noureddine, S. (2003). Gender differences in the psychosocial and cogni-

tive correlates of physical activity among taiwanese adolescents: A structural equation modeling

approach. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10(2), 93-105. https://doi.org/10.1207/

S15327558IJBM1002_01

Zimmerman, B. (1996). Measuring and mismeasuring academic self-efﬁcacy: Dimensions, problems,

and misconceptions. Symposium presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational

Research Association, New York.