Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v14i1.8245
1
Determining the drivers of sustainable ecotourism
destination competitiveness from a supply-side
perspective: a case of UNESCO World Heritage Site in
Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia
Jun Zhou, Thong.* Faculty of Economics and Business, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
May Chiun, Lo. Faculty of Economics and Business, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Faculty of Economics and Business, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
* Corresponding author
Received April 2024; Accepted June 2024
ABSTRACT
Over the last decade, a new segment of the tourism market
has been established following the shift in global visitors’
preferences. Individuals have directed their travel course
towards another form of travel, namely ecotourism.
Nonetheless, the sustainability and progression of
ecotourism destinations are often debated. This study
involves local industry players’ perspectives, primarily to
identify their perceptions towards the impacts of
destination core and supporting resources on destination
marketing efforts and destination competitiveness (DC).
This study gathered 132 valid responses and the proposed
model was evaluated using SmartPLS 4.0. Through
partial least squares-structural equation modelling (PLS-
SEM), the findings showed that core resources (natural
resources and cultural heritage attraction) have
substantial positive associations with destination
marketing efforts. Supporting resources (tourism
infrastructure and quality of tourism services) were found
to be significantly and positively associated with DC.
Interestingly, this study has revealed the absence of
significant relationships between destination marketing
efforts and ecotourism DC. These findings enable tourism
practitioners to better understand the impacts of
resources on sustainable development of ecotourism
competitiveness, specifically from suppliers’ perspectives.
The implications are further discussed in the paper.
RESUMEN
En la última década, se ha creado un nuevo segmento del
mercado turístico a raíz del cambio en las preferencias de los
visitantes de todo el mundo. Las personas han orientado sus
viajes hacia otra forma de turismo, el ecoturismo. No obstante,
la sostenibilidad y la progresión de los destinos ecoturísticos
suelen ser objeto de debate. Este estudio aborda las
perspectivas de los agentes del sector local, principalmente
para identificar sus percepciones sobre las repercusiones del
núcleo del destino y los recursos de apoyo en los esfuerzos de
marketing y la competitividad del destino (CD). Este estudio
reunió 132 respuestas válidas y el modelo propuesto se evaluó
mediante SmartPLS 4.0. Mediante el modelo de ecuaciones
estructurales por mínimos cuadrados parciales (PLS-SEM), los
resultados mostraron que los recursos básicos (recursos
naturales y atracción del patrimonio cultural) tienen
asociaciones positivas sustanciales con los esfuerzos de
marketing de los destinos. Los recursos de apoyo
(infraestructura turística y calidad de los servicios turísticos)
se asociaron significativa y positivamente con el DC.
Curiosamente, este estudio ha revelado la ausencia de
relaciones significativas entre los esfuerzos de marketing del
destino y la CD del ecoturismo. Estas conclusiones permiten a
los profesionales del turismo comprender mejor el impacto de
los recursos en el desarrollo sostenible de la competitividad del
ecoturismo, concretamente desde la perspectiva de los
proveedores. Las implicaciones se discuten con más detalle en
el documento.
KEYWORDS
Ecotourism; Destination Marketing Efforts; Destination
Competitiveness; PLS-SEM.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Ecoturismo; Esfuerzos de marketing del destino;
Competitividad del destino; PLS-SEM.
ENLIGHTENING TOURISM: A PATHMAKING
JOURNAL
journal homepage: https://uhu.es/publicaciones/ojs/index.php/et
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
https://doi.org/10.33776/et.v14i1.8245
2
1. INTRODUCTION
Tourism, is broadly known as a diverse
phenomenon that encompasses a vast array of
entities, subjects, activities, behaviour, and
movement between places or countries (Imran,
2022), while functioning as a mechanism that
benefits local economy (Rasool et al., 2021). Over
the years, the industry of tourism has undergone
evolvement into one of the most competitive
segments in service industry. According to United
Nation World Tourism Organization (2020), a sum
which accounted for 1.5 billion visitors have visited
international destinations in 2019, which is ahead of
its initial 10-year visitor arrivals projection (2012-
2021) by two years. In other words, tourism is
regarded as a resilient and leading sector of economy,
which has grown tremendously over the decades and
visitors are increasingly looking for new areas to
unwind, such as natural tourism spots.
In recent years, the growing trend where visitors
are choosing to visit natural areas has been witnessed
around the globe, particularly for their vacations to
experience the authentic local natures and traditional
cultures (Baloch et al., 2023). The establishment of
ecotourism sector has benefited the respective
industry, particularly, in enhancing business
opportunities enhancement and alleviating poverty.
Subsequently, major attention of government bodies
and researchers was directed towards developing
tourism in a sustainable manner (Hall, 2019). This
includes the present context, where the Ministry of
Tourism, Arts and Culture (MOTAC) Malaysia and
the Ministry of Tourism, Creative Industry and
Performing Arts (MTCP) Sarawak, have shifted their
directions towards ecotourism industry development,
striving towards their goals of becoming the
“Preferred Ecotourism Destination in the World”
(Tourism Malaysia, 2023).
In point of fact, ensuing from the rise in visitors’
demands to unwind via natural landscapes and
distinctive ethnicities, there has been an occurrence
of snowballing within the industry of tourism,
following the broad range of options available for
visitors (Liu et al., 2020). Hence, it is imperative for
the navigation of the current economic downturn
through a reasonable number of promotional
initiatives and strategic development of ecotourism
destinations, primarily to maintain or strengthen
one’s competitive position in the market of tourism.
Despite the importance of being comparative and
competitive; nonetheless, the nexus between the
sustainability and development of ecotourism
destinations has been constantly argued (Jaini et al.,
2019). Following the evolving needs of future
generations, a fine equilibrium between the said
initiatives is utterly essential, as it is important to
preserve these natural protected areas (NPAs) and
avoid being overwhelmed by vast amount of
marketing activities. This may eventually exceed the
carrying capacity of an eco-destination, causing it to
be congested. Therefore, local industry players
should strategically plan and execute approaches to
marketing that focus on promoting responsible
tourism, highlighting the unique resources that are
available in the destinations.
Gunung Mulu National Park, the biggest national
park in the Bornean Island, was declared an
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. It is located
about 106km away from the city centre of Miri,
Sarawak (Sarawak Forestry Corporation, 2023). This
park is accessible by public transport and boat, where
the whole journey could take from one to several days
depending on the connections. This ecotourism
destination is well-known for its sandstone summit,
gigantic caves, and adventurous trails. Moreover,
Gunung Mulu National Park is unique for its 85,000
hectares of some of the oldest pristine rainforests in
the world and excavations with 1,500 to 3,000 years
of history. In addition, the Heritage Site is being
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
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famed for its Melinau Limestone Formation with
approximately 4000 to 5000 meters thick, revealing
a geological history of over 1.5 million years.
Subsequently, this national park is selected as the
present study location for its abundant ecotourism
elements and resources.
In short, the abundance of natural resources and
other relevant resources are commonly seen as the
primary appeals that motivate visitations to national
parks (Thong et al., 2022b). The natural landscape,
facilities, cultural and artistic heritage are
propounded as the key contributors to the growth of
tourism destinations (Confetto et al., 2023).
Additionally, the quality of tourism services is likely
to influence the satisfaction levels among visitors,
planning, development, and tourism destination
competitiveness (DC) (Muresan et al., 2019). As
previous studies typically viewed at DC from the
demand perspectives (Carneiro et al., 2015; Chin et
al., 2022), there is a limited understanding of how
tourism suppliers could strategically put sustainable
development into practice, coupled with a scholarly
gap concerning the perception towards this
implementation.
Building upon this foundation, this study
incorporates the view of local industry players on the
impact of core resources (i.e., natural resources and
cultural heritage attraction), supporting resources
(i.e., tourism infrastructure and quality of tourism
services), towards the perceived destination
marketing efforts and ecotourism DC. Hence, this
study aims to bridge the gap by answering the
following research questions:
i. Do destination core and supporting
resources lead to local industry players’
ecotourism destination marketing efforts?
ii. Do destination core and supporting
resources enhance ecotourism DC?
iii. To what extent do destination marketing
efforts lead to increased ecotourism DC?
This manuscript is followed by several sections
to provide a comprehensive analysis of ecotourism,
comprising of the Literature Review section which
surveys existing research on ecotourism, destination
competitiveness, and sustainable tourism practices.
Besides, the section of Methodology outlines the
research design, data collection, and analytical
methods used in the study. Subsequently, the
findings from the data analyses are presented in the
Results section and interpreted in the section of
Discussion. Finally, the implications of the present
study and prospects for forthcoming studies are
further discussed.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Ecotourism
As Santarém et al. (2020) indicated, ecotourism
has the potential to exert a significant impact on both
the environment and human lives, while also adding
to a nation’s economic prosperity. Moreover,
ecotourism can raise awareness about the
importance of environmental preservation,
prompting the implementation of sustainable
practices and conservation initiatives, for the
preservation of natural resources, biodiversity, and
the delicate ecosystems (Fennell, 2008; Naseem,
2021). This form of tourism is often referred to travel
to ecological spots that promotes environment
conservation, education, and well-being of the locals
(Chan et al., 2023; Ciarlantini et al., 2023). Although
there is no universally accepted definition for
ecotourism (Buckley, 2013; Fennell, 2001);
however, it is presented as a new phenomenon which
provides important impacts to the tourism industry.
In recent studies, ecotourism is defined to a
sustainable tourism which is promoted alongside
with travel to natural places responsibly (Fennell,
2020). Thus, an ecotourism destination’s
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
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progression must be more than just ecologically and
economically sustained to be deemed competitive. In
a similar vein, several studies have underlined the
significance of tourism destination resources (e.g.,
core and supporting resources) to the industry’s
sustainability and development of DC (Murayama et
al., 2022; Thong et al., 2023). Therefore, in this
study, destination core and supporting resources,
destination marketing efforts, and DC are integrated
as the independent as well as dependent variables
respectively.
2.2 Competitiveness Theory
In respect of competitiveness theory, the
theoretical foundation for creating a model of DC
frequently employed both the comparative and
competitive advantage concepts in its illustration
(Mihalic, 2000; Ritchie & Crouch, 2003).
Precedingly, Ritchie and Crouch (1999) defined
destination comparative advantage as its core
attractors (e.g., natural, and artificial resources),
while competitive advantage is described as the
more sophisticated components which comprises
created or man-made resources (e.g., tourism
activities and events), to ensure one’s
competitiveness. Also, scholars have emphasized
the use of theories of comparative and competitive
advantage in studying the competitiveness of a
tourism destination (Navickas & Malakauskaite,
2009). Recently, the respective theory was widely
used in scholarly studies, specifically in the
investigation of sustainable tourism DC to elucidate
the formation of important DC factors. These
include both inherited resources (comparative
advantage) and supporting resources (competitive
advantage) for tourism destinations (Thong et al.,
2022a; Zehrer et al., 2017). In the present ecotourism
context, competitiveness theory underpins this study
in explaining the contribution of core resources
(natural resources and cultural heritage attraction)
and supporting resources (tourism infrastructure and
quality of tourism services), anticipating them to
have significant impacts on the development of
ecotourism DC.
2.3 Destination Competitiveness (DC)
In the literature of tourism, strong emphasis and
studies have focused on the DC concept from
numerous perceptions (Angelkova et al., 2012;
Natalia et al., 2019). Initially, DC was defined as the
tactics and methods used for analysing and
comparing the different traits of planning
perspective between various destinations (Hassan,
2000; Mihalic, 2000). Subsequently, scholars have
propounded that competitiveness is achieved when a
destination meets certain conditions, such as the
growth in economic prosperity for the local
community (Warren, 2013), along with sustainable
advancement of the key resources (Wilde & Cox,
2008). Moreover, some researchers in the past have
highlighted the importance of studying DC in terms
of financial returns and sustainability (Vengesayi et
al., 2013). Despite DC is defined in numerous ways,
the definition postulated by Hassan (2000) has made
it to one of the top cited designations, suggesting that
a destination is regarded as competitive when it
possesses the capability to maintain its position in
the market relative to competitors through creation
of value-added products and resources
sustainability. Following that, this concept has been
widely applied in the investigation of service
industry (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003). It is suggested
that adequate management of a destination leads to
enhanced competitiveness, thus led to the growing
interest in the application of DC concept at different
tourism destinations (Chin, 2022; Díaz & Fernández,
2020).
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
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2.4 Natural Resources
In the context of ecotourism DC, the availability
of natural resources, such as diverse flora and fauna
and picturesque landscapes, plays a crucial role in
enhancing and sustaining a competitive market
position against other destinations. Ecotourism
revolves around the concept of travel and exploration
in natural areas (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1993), where
the environmental resources act as the primary
enticement to allure both visitors and tourists
(Zakariya et al., 2019). Moreover, studies in the have
elucidated the critical influence of natural resources
in enhancing the competitiveness of tourism
destinations, establishing competitive advantages,
and fostering sustainable environments (Yoon,
2002).
Over the years, visitors increasingly seek
opportunities to escape urban environments and
immerse themselves in the beauty and serenity of
natural settings (Wray et al., 2010). Additionally, it
is evident that visitors are increasingly seeking
opportunities to unwind, gain knowledge about the
nature, as well as to observe plants and wildlife in
their natural habitats (Rehman et al., 2023). Thus,
the presence of abundant flora and fauna that are
coupled with captivating landscapes, provides
visitors with unique experiences that cannot be
replicated elsewhere, thereby contributing to a
competitive edge (Zaman, 2023). Nevertheless,
given the significance of natural resources, it
becomes paramount for local tourism industry
players to prioritize the conservation of these
resources, primarily to avoid unnecessary impacts on
the environment's competency (Lo et al., 2017;
Scales, 2014). Hence, the abovementioned
discussion led to the hypotheses below:
H1: Natural resources are significantly and
positively related to destination marketing
efforts.
H2: Natural resources are significantly and
positively related to DC.
2.5 Cultural Heritage Attraction
The cultural heritage of a destination,
encompassing its history, traditions, customs,
architectural features, and artistic creations, has been
highlighted by Dwyer and Kim (2003) as a
significant factor in attracting visitors. Destinations
that offer exclusive cultural experience allow visitors
to immerse themselves in the local ethnicity, learn
about its historical significance, engage with
traditional customs, and marvel at architectural
masterpieces. This inclusion of cultural heritage
attractions in travel experiences enhances visitor
satisfaction by providing them with unique and
authentic encounters with the local culture, traditions,
and artistic expressions. Nonetheless, Giudici et al.
(2013) highlighted the importance of understanding
and mitigating any adverse effects that cultural
heritage tourism may have on the local socio-cultural
fabric. It is crucial for the preservation and promotion
of cultural heritage to be approached in a manner that
respects and safeguards the values, traditions, and
social dynamics of the local community.
Furthermore, scholars have emphasized the
substantial role that a destination's cultural and
historical aspects play in enhancing its
competitiveness (Potashova & Girijchuk, 2019). In
the competitive landscape of the tourism industry,
the cultural and historical aspects of a destination
become crucial elements in setting it apart from
other contenders. Moreover, the significant role of
cultural heritage attractions in determining the
competitiveness of a tourism destination has been
revealed by Gupta and Singh (2019). In the highly
competitive tourism market, destinations with well-
preserved and compelling cultural heritage assets
gain a competitive edge, as they not only attract
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
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visitors but also contribute to the destination's
overall appeal and market positioning. This
distinctiveness not only attracts visitors but also
encourages them to stay longer, explore further, and
contribute to the local economy (Fernández et al.,
2020). Thus, it is hypothesized that:
H3: Cultural heritage attraction is significantly
and positively related to destination marketing
efforts.
H4: Cultural heritage attraction is significantly
and positively related to DC.
2.6 Tourism Infrastructure
In the realm of destination marketing, the
significance of effective marketing strategies cannot
be understated. It plays a pivotal role in generating
greater visitor expenditures and patronage for a
destination (Yuju-Wang, 2007). In this context,
previous scholars have consistently emphasized the
crucial role of tourism infrastructure in attracting
visitors to a destination (Seetanah et al., 2018). It is
often viewed as the ultimate attractor for visitors,
directly influencing their overall travel experience.
Thus, the maintenance and robust development of
tourism infrastructure is imperative for destinations
seeking to attract visitors and enhance their
competitiveness. Following its close bond with the
success of destination marketing, it serves as a
foundation for promoting and delivering exceptional
experiences to visitors.
Tourism infrastructure, beyond its functional
role, also contributes significantly to the overall
competitiveness of a destination (Hosseini et al.,
2015). Likewise, tourism infrastructure is ranked as
the next most significant factor in defining a
destination's comparative and competitive
advantage, following environmental indicators
(Dwyer & Kim, 2003; Khadaroo & Seetanah, 2008).
The presence of well-developed and efficient
infrastructure, including transportation networks,
accommodation options, and basic amenities,
enhances a destination's attractiveness and
competitiveness in the tourism market. Furthermore,
improvements in tourism infrastructure augments
the accessibility and reachability of a tourism
destination (Su & Wall, 2019). A well-connected
facility system, including airports and public
transportation, enables the movement and
convenient access of visitors. This degree of
convenience, in turn, plays a pivotal role in
increasing the destination's competitiveness (Chin et
al., 2017; Confetto et al., 2023). the subsequent
hypothesis is formulated:
H5: Tourism infrastructure is significantly and
positively related to destination marketing
efforts.
H6: Tourism infrastructure is significantly and
positively related to DC.
2.7 Quality of Tourism Services
Past studies have consistently highlighted the
notion that tourism destinations primarily offer
"experiences" rather than tangible goods and services
(Fabricius, 2001; Schlesinger et al., 2020). To
provide visitors with distinctive and memorable
experiences, the effectiveness of services becomes
crucial (Fuchs & Weiermair, 2003). These
experiences subsequently contribute to the overall
enjoyment of visitors, which has been extensively
linked to DC (Chi & Qu, 2008; Davidson, 2016).
Moreover, the quality of tourism services in a
destination is essential in shaping visitor experience
and destination marketing effectiveness (Akroush et
al., 2016).
Furthermore, studies have revealed that
enhancing the quality of tourism services leads to
increased levels of satisfaction among visitors
(Cimbaljevic et al., 2018; Zainuddin et al., 2016). A
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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7
destination that prioritizes service quality gains a
competitive edge over others in the market (Cao et
al., 2022). By providing exceptional service
experiences, destinations can differentiate
themselves, create positive brand perceptions, and
develop a loyal customer base, thereby enhancing
their overall competitiveness. Consequently, the
following hypotheses are devised:
H7: Quality of tourism services is significantly
and positively related to destination marketing
efforts.
H8: Quality of tourism services is significantly
and positively related to DC.
2.8 Destination Marketing Efforts
Destination marketing efforts are often
recognized as one of the most essential and powerful
tools in the endeavour of accomplishing sustainable
development for a tourism destination (Giray et al.,
2019). Through destination marketing efforts, a
destination is more equipped and prepared for the
mounting competition in the markets of tourism. In
addition, destination marketing efforts are also
referred to an incessant identification of visitors’
demands, hence enable effective formulation of the
precise strategy for fulfilment, specifically through
enhancement of travel experience (Morrison, 2023).
Effective destination marketing leads to the
sustainable utilization of resources and the
optimization of positive impacts resulting from
tourism development (Mwinuka, 2017).
Subsequently, its significant role is highly
emphasized and highlighted to deliver the suitable
offers to visitors, especially when they originate from
diverse cultural background (Dwyer et al., 2009).
Moreover, Peceny et al. (2019) have indicated that
destination marketing efforts as a crucial initiative to
promote available resources, simultaneously, as a
tourism attractor by providing significant impact on
visitors’ decision-making processes of a destination.
Researchers explained the role of destination
marketing in establishing the image of a destination,
which subsequently leads to greater success of a
tourism destination in comparison with competing
destinations (Lund et al., 2018). In the present
context, its marketing primarily involves the
promotion of ecotourism opportunities and
experiences in an eco-destination (Massi & De
Nisco, 2018). Besides, past studies have propounded
that a differentiated tourism destination tends to gain
competitive advantage from the practice of
destination marketing (Blain et al., 2005; Khan et al.,
2022). Henceforth, the following hypothesis is
proposed:
H9: Destination marketing efforts are
significantly and positively related to DC.
2.9 Conceptual Framework
In accordance with the above mentioned review
of literature and hypotheses formulation, Figure 1
depicts the proposed conceptual framework in this
study.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
3. METHODOLOGY
Following the increased emphasis on promoting
ecotourism, responsible travel, unique ethnicities,
and local arts (Louis, 2019), this study was
performed at Gunung Mulu National Park, an
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Sarawak,
Malaysia. The respective heritage site is recognized
for its magnificent formation of sandstone pinnacles
and limestone, a thick layer of sedimentary rocks
within the infamous Sarawak Chamber, Deer Cave,
and Clearwater Cave. In conjunction with the
Malaysia’s National Tourism Policy (NTP) 2020-
2030, it has raised the concern in relation to the
development of strategy and operation, to ensure
availability in the long run. The location of the study
site on Sarawak map is demonstrated in Figure 2,
while Figure 3 displays a snapshot taken during the
collection of data.
Figure 2. The location of study site on map.
To collect data, the present study has utilized a
quantitative method, particularly through the
distribution of questionnaires, consisted of two
sections, namely Section I and II. As included in
Table 4, Section I comprises 36 items adapted from
the past studies (Azzopardi & Nash, 2016; Canny &
Hidayat, 2012; Dwyer & Kim, 2003; Enright &
Newton, 2005; Maroofi & Dehghan, 2012).
Following slight modifications to suit the Malaysian
context, these items were used to gather the local
industry players’ perceptions on destination
resources (natural resources, cultural heritage
attraction, tourism infrastructure, and quality of
tourism services) towards the destination marketing
efforts and DC of Gunung Mulu National Park. By
Figure 3. The calcareous cave in Gunung Mulu.
using a 7-point Likert scale, these individuals are
required to rate each item based on the given scale
(1 – strongly disagree and 7 – strongly agree). On the
other hand, the six items contained in the Section II
gathered the respective respondents’ demographic
profiles. The respondents’ demographic profiles are
tabulated in Table 1.
Regarding the gender composition of the
respondents in the current study, there was a
predominant male representation, with males
constituting 62.1% of the participants, contrasted
with a 37.9% female representation. This disparity is
noteworthy despite the absence of any evidence
suggesting inferior competence among women. The
study conducted by Hryniewicz and Vienna (2018)
further corroborates this observation, indicating a
male-dominated presence in the labour market,
especially within local industry sectors.
Consequently, this research yields an intriguing
insight, particularly concerning gender-based
participation discrepancies in local tourism-related
engagements.
Furthermore, a significant proportion of the
survey participants reported a monthly income below
RM 5,001, accounting for 62.8%, which includes
individuals earning less than RM 1,000. Generally,
locals’ financial earnings are intrinsically tied to the
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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9
visitor influx. This economic pattern is presumably
connected to their prevalent occupation, many of
whom were engaged in handicraft production at the
research site. This trend is likely attributable to the
recent easing of border restrictions, a policy change
implemented only a few months before the gathering
of this data, which may have influenced the reduced
their income levels.
Figure 4 displays the graph of G*Power, a
standalone power analysis software, to perform a
priori power analysis. In brief, a minimum sample
size of 98 is required for the present study, based on
a 5% significance level, 80% statistical power, and
an effect size of 0.15.
Using purposive sampling method, the present
study has selected local industry players who aged at
least 18 years and above to be deemed eligible for
participation.
Figure 4. Graph of G*Power analysis.
Demographic
Variable
Category
Frequency (n)
Gender
Male
Female
82
50
Age
Between 18 and 20 years old
Between 21 and 30 years old
Between 31 and 40 years old
Between 41 and 50 years old
Between 51 and 60 years old
61 years old and above
7
15
28
33
45
4
Ethnic Group
Malay
Chinese
Indian
Bidayuh
Iban
Penan
Kelabit
40
5
0
22
46
3
16
Education
Level
High school or below
Diploma
Degree or professional qualifications
Postgraduate
73
40
17
2
Occupation
Handicraft Maker
Homestay Owner
Resort or Hotel Operator
Transportation Provider
Restaurant Owner
24
13
35
32
28
Monthly
Income
Less than RM 1,000
Between RM 1,001 and RM 3,000
Between RM 3,001 and RM 5,000
Between RM 5,001 and RM 7,000
Between RM 7,001 and RM 9,000
RM 9,001 and above
13
38
32
28
18
3
Respondents’ profile (n=132)
Mean
(Overall)
Min.
Max.
Age (in years)
41.2
18
76
Table 1. Demographic profiles of respondents.
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
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Based on the researchers’ personal judgement,
this non-probability sampling was applied for the
sample selection of this study, rather than grounded
on a population size (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).
Following the park management’s approval and
legal informed consent from the selected
respondents, the data collection was conducted over
a duration of seven months, as of June until
December 2022.
4. RESULTS
4.1 Preliminary Analyses
By using Social Sciences Statistical Package
(SPSS) 28.0, the issue of common method bias was
examined using full collinearity (Kock, 2023). As
Table 2 depicts, all the values of variance inflation
factor (VIF) were less than 3.3 was yielded, hence
deduced that the remaining 132 data sets were free
from issues related to single source bias.
Construct
VIF
NR
2.083
CHA
1.566
TI
1.726
QS
1.501
DME
1.714
Table 2. Full collinearity of constructs.
Note: NR = Natural Resources, CHA = Cultural Heritage
Attraction, TI = Tourism Infrastructure, QS = Quality of
Tourism Services, DME = Destination Marketing Efforts.
4.2 Common Method Variance (CMV)
This study had applied a Harman's single factor
test to investigate the CMV issue (O’Connor, 2000).
Fundamentally, it is a prerequisite for the value of
the first factor to be less than 50% (Aulakh &
Gencturk, 2000). As the results implied in Table 3,
the principal loading was only 36.92%, thereby
confirmed that method biases were absent.
4.3 Statistical Analyses
Overall, this study has attained a valid response
rate of 91% (Nulty, 2008), where 136 out of 150 sets
of questionnaires were returned. Subsequently, the
missing data, outliers, and suspicious data patterns
were identified using SPSS 28.0. As a result, 4 sets
of response were omitted, and the remaining 132
data sets were further evaluated using SmartPLS 4.0.
By using a two-step PLS-SEM analysis, both the
measurement and structural models were assessed to
ensure their reliability. Then, the hypothesised
relationships between the constructs were examined
in the second phase (Ringle et al., 2023).
4.3.1 Assessment of the Measurement Model
Following a confirmatory factory analysis
(CFA), the reliability and validity (convergent and
discriminant) of all measures were assessed. As
Table 4 tabulated, the internal consistency was
ensured via verifying the factor loadings against a
minimum standard of 0.5 to ensure internal
consistency (Bagozzi et al., 1991). Moreover, to
establish validity, it is essential that the composite
reliability (CR) values surpass the minimum
threshold of 0.7 (Chin, 2010), while the average
variance extracted (AVE) values are required to
exceed the benchmark criterion of 0.50 (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981). The results indicated that both CR
and AVE values successfully fulfilled these
stipulated minimum criteria.
The discriminant validity of the measures is
shown in Table 5 (Chin, 2010). Accordingly, it was
confirmed that the measurement model was valid
and appropriate, establishing its precision,
convergent and discriminant validity. In addition,
the coefficients of determination (R2) obtained for
destination marketing efforts and DC were 0.417 and
0.548 respectively (Cohen, 1998).
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
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11
4.3.2 Assessment of the Structural Model
For one-tailed testing, particularly to correspond
to the 95% (statistically significant) and 99%
confidences (highly statistically significant), the
hypothesized linkages should achieve at least t-
values of 1.645 or 2.33, while not exceeding 0.01 or
0.05 p-values, respectively (Fisher, 1992). Table 6
Component
Initial Eigenvalues
Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Total
% of
Variance
Cumulative
%
Total
% of
Variance
Cumulative
%
1
13.290
36.916
36.916
13.290
36.916
36.916
2
2.962
8.227
45.143
2.962
8.227
45.143
3
2.231
6.196
51.339
2.231
6.196
51.339
4
1.441
4.002
55.341
1.441
4.002
55.341
5
1.384
3.844
59.186
1.384
3.844
59.186
6
1.196
3.321
62.507
1.196
3.321
62.507
7
.950
2.638
65.145
8
.907
2.519
67.663
9
.821
2.280
69.943
10
.795
2.209
72.153
11
.754
2.094
74.247
12
.673
1.870
76.118
13
.631
1.754
77.871
14
.585
1.626
79.497
15
.548
1.523
81.021
16
.544
1.510
82.531
17
.504
1.401
83.932
18
.467
1.297
85.229
19
.442
1.227
86.456
20
.435
1.208
87.663
21
.422
1.172
88.835
22
.400
1.112
89.947
23
.362
1.005
90.953
24
.347
.963
91.915
25
.330
.916
92.831
26
.319
.886
93.717
27
.304
.845
94.563
28
.290
.805
95.368
29
.275
.765
96.132
30
.247
.686
96.819
31
.230
.638
97.457
32
.211
.586
98.043
33
.187
.521
98.564
34
.181
.502
99.066
35
.175
.486
99.552
36
.161
.448
100.000
Table 3. Total variance explained.
and Figure 5 illustrate the statistical results obtained
from the hypotheses testing.
5. DISCUSSION
As the present results indicated, three out of the
four direct hypotheses (H1, H3, and H5) which were
projected to have significant positive linkages with
destination marketing efforts, were found to be
supported. To begin with, the significance of natural
resources on destination marketing efforts was
discovered, particularly in the sense of a UNIESCO
World Heritage Site – Gunung Mulu National Park.
This finding is aligned with studies in the past, where
the crucial role of these resources as a destination’s
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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12
core attractor was highlighted (Gupta, 2015;
Zakariya et al., 2019). Henceforth, it can be deduced
that local industry players viewed natural resources,
such as the flora and fauna, as an important element
Table 4. Results of the assessment of the measurement model.
Constructs
Item(s)
Loadings
AVE
CR
Natural Resources
The destination has a beautiful natural landscape.
The availability of flora and fauna to attract tourists.
The destination has a peaceful and restful atmosphere.
The destination environment is well-preserved.
NR_01
NR_02
NR_03
NR_04
0.860
0.899
0.887
0.803
0.745
0.886
Cultural Heritage Attraction
There are unique ethnic groups and cultures in this area.
Abundance of tourism resources (scenery, historic/cultural/heritage
site, local culture, etc.).
The destination offers interesting historical attractions.
CHA_02
CHA_03
CHA_04
0.732
0.846
0.820
0.641
0.730
Tourism Infrastructure
The infrastructure within the destination is adequate to meet visitor
needs.
The signals and sign-postings within the destination are operating
well.
The functionality of the facilities in the destination is satisfactory.
There are health/medical facilities to serve tourists in this area.
There is availability of telecommunication system for tourists (e.g.,
telephone network, Internet).
There is consistency of electricity supply in the destination.
TI_01
TI_02
TI_03
TI_04
TI_05
TI_06
0.837
0.865
0.847
0.854
0.777
0.773
0.683
0.908
Quality of Tourism Services
Employees in this place are credible and courteous with tourists.
The tour escorts in this place are experienced and competent.
This place has unspoiled nature.
This place offers provision of information on local events/activities.
This place offers consistent cost for tours.
This place cultivates friendly relationship with tourists.
QS_1
QS_2
QS_3
QS_4
QS_5
QS_6
0.784
0.786
0.764
0.831
0.795
0.754
0.618
0.881
Destination Marketing Efforts
Tourism helps to increase the development of a strong destination
image.
This place has an overall favourable image in the world community.
This place has commitment to providing a satisfactory vacation
experience for tourists.
This place has continuous commitment to the ongoing improvement
and development of a high-quality destination.
DME_01
DME_02
DME_03
DME_04
0.815
0.847
0.822
0.826
0.685
0.851
Destination Competitiveness
This place offers value for the money.
This place has a high commitment to preserving the destination
environment.
This place has a high commitment improving and developing a
high-quality destination.
This place has a high commitment to providing the safe and secure
environment.
The local peoples are friendly, and I enjoyed the hospitability in this
place.
The policies and regulations in this place are favourable to the
visitor.
This place provides quality relative to visitor’s country/state.
There are unique tourism resources which attracted visitor to this
place.
It is easy for the visitor to access the information about this place
before travel.
DC_01
DC_02
DC_03
DC_04
DC_05
DC_06
DC_07
DC_08
DC_09
0.786
0.843
0.795
0.786
0.859
0.844
0.831
0.851
0.830
0.681
0.942
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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1
2
3
4
5
6
Natural Resources
Cultural Heritage Attraction
0.599
Tourism Infrastructure
0.682
0.363
Quality of Tourism Services
0.562
0.533
0.487
Destination Marketing Efforts
0.619
0.669
0.510
0.497
Destination Competitiveness
0.663
0.376
0.704
0.606
0.437
Table 5. Discriminant validity of the constructs
H
Relationships
Std
Beta
Std
Error
t-values
p-values
f2
Decision
H1
NR→DME
0.230
0.089
2.528
0.006
0.043
Supported
H2
NR→DC
0.256
0.069
3.739
0.000
0.070
Supported
H3
CHA→DME
0.327
0.071
4.613
0.000
0.132
Supported
H4
CHA→DC
-0.035
0.051
0.700
0.242
0.002
Not Supported
H5
TI→DME
0.170
0.084
2.061
0.020
0.031
Supported
H6
TI→DC
0.385
0.073
5.291
0.000
0.191
Supported
H7
QS→DME
0.102
0.065
1.590
0.056
0.012
Not Supported
H8
QS→DC
0.288
0.064
4.442
0.000
0.120
Supported
H9
DME→DC
-0.024
0.056
0.433
0.333
0.001
Not Supported
Table 6. Summary of path coefficients and hypotheses testing.
for the purpose of promoting Gunung Mulu National
Park.
Besides, the statistical outcomes revealed the
significant positive impact of cultural heritage
attraction on destination marketing efforts. In line
with past findings (Potashova & Girijchuk, 2019),
the present study has discovered that cultural
element in a destination is perceived as an essential
component of comparative advantage, from a local
industry players’ perspective. Likewise, this study
has shown findings consistent with previous studies
(Chi et al., 2020; Erislan, 2016), demonstrating the
significant role of tourism infrastructure in
destination marketing.
Therefore, it can be deduced that the locals
perceived the available infrastructure, such as
electric supply and telecommunication systems, are
crucial in promoting an ecotourism destination.
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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14
Figure 5. Research model with path coefficients and t-values.
On the other hand, three out of the five direct
hypotheses (H2, H6, and H8), which were
anticipated to be significantly and positively
associated with local industry players’ perceived
DC, were supported by the findings. As the local
industry players of Gunung Mulu National Park
perceived, the abundance of natural landscapes and
untouched environments are recognized as a unique
selling proposition (USP), adding to the competitive
edge in comparison to other destinations (Zaman,
2023). Apart from core resources, the results also
backed previous findings, showing that the locals
have viewed the accessible supporting resources,
namely, tourism-related infrastructure as an
important contributor to a destination’s competitive
advantage (Chin, 2022; Erislan, 2016).
Moreover, the significant influence of the quality
of tourism services was demonstrated in this study.
This finding urges a greater emphasis on the
enrichment of services quality in ecotourism
destination, such as the local staffs’ credibility,
friendliness, and informativeness. In other words, the
more decent the extent and ability of the service
provided, a higher number of visitors will be attracted
to the respective destination, thus boosting its
development of competitiveness in a sustainable
manner (Chin et al., 2023; Setokoe et al., 2019;
Zainuddin et al., 2016).
The three hypotheses that remained, namely, H4,
H7, and H9 were not supported. In point of fact, the
present study has shown a rather interesting finding,
indicating the absence of the significant relationship
between cultural heritage attraction and DC. In
contrary to the past findings (Potashova & Girijchuk,
2019; Thong et al., 2023), it was found that the
cultural elements had a negative impact on DC, as
perceived by the local industry players. This is
justifiable as this study emphasized on the unique
perspective of the tourism suppliers, which is
dissimilar from those of visitors or previous studies.
As these individuals are more attuned to the daily
practical aspects of eco-destination management,
which typically rely on one’s ecological aspects,
they might be insensitive to how these cultural
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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15
elements can influence the competitiveness of a
destination in the long run.
Despite the findings of numerous previous
scholars suggesting that a tourism destinations’
quality of services is substantially related to its
competitive advantage (Kanwal et al., 2019; Mihai et
al., 2023); however, this study has indicated
otherwise. It is suggested that ecotourists, who are
typically regarded as nature lovers, may be more
focused on the natural environment than on
interacting with local staffs in Gunung Mulu National
Park. This may be due, in part, to language barriers
and other factors that limit the ability of ecotourists
to fully engage with local industry players. As a
result, their satisfaction with the tourism experience
may be driven more by the natural environment they
encounter, rather than quality of tourism services
received during their trips to ecotourism destinations.
Furthermore, another surprising outcome was
shown by the present results, particularly, signifying
that destination marketing efforts were not
significantly associated with DC. The respective
discovery contradicts past studies, which have
postulated that the promotion of a tourism destination
plays an imperative part of boosting its competency
(Khan et al., 2022). This is explainable as the local
industry players, which are mainly consisted of local
communities in the location, are highly concerned
about the potential risk of overcrowding due to
excessive marketing. As the name suggests,
overcrowding occurs when the natural carrying
capacity is rigorously exceeded, possibly leading to
the degradation of one’s ecological integrity.
Subsequently, the method of PLSpredict was
employed to assess the predictive efficacy of the
model. This technique involves the use of a holdout
sample combined with a 10-fold cross-validation
approach to generate predictions at the individual
level, either at the item or construct level (Shmueli
et al., 2019). The comparison with a linear regression
(LM) model is pivotal; a robust predictive capability
is indicated when the majority of differences
between the partial least squares and linear model
(PLS-LM) are smaller. A moderate predictive
strength is suggested when most of these differences
Item
PLS_RMSE
LM_RMSE
PLS-LM
Q2_predict
Sample (n = 260)
DC_01
0.832
0.881
-0.049
0.351
DC_02
0.873
0.911
-0.038
0.350
DC_03
0.925
0.965
-0.040
0.309
DC_04
0.885
0.924
-0.039
0.339
DC_05
0.865
0.895
-0.030
0.422
DC_06
0.896
0.923
-0.027
0.401
DC_07
0.886
0.920
-0.034
0.364
DC_08
0.960
1.004
-0.044
0.361
DC_09
0.958
1.005
-0.047
0.313
DME_01
0.942
0.972
-0.030
0.266
DME_02
1.014
1.034
-0.020
0.243
DME_03
1.030
1.061
-0.031
0.201
DME_04
0.933
0.970
-0.037
0.326
Table 7. Outcomes of PLSpredict.
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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16
are reduced, and a weaker predictive ability is
inferred if only a limited number adhere to this
criterion. As illustrated in Table 7, in the context of
the current PLS model, all root mean square errors
of prediction (PLS_RMSE) were lower than those in
the LM model, thus denoting a significant predictive
strength.
6. CONCLUSION, THEORETICAL AND
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
To conclude, this study has provided sufficient
empirical evidence on how destination core and
supporting resources affect the destination marketing
efforts and DC, particularly from the supply side
stakeholders’ perspectives. Additionally, the
statistical results have identified the significance of
destination core and supporting resources (natural
resources, cultural heritage attraction, tourism
infrastructure, and quality of tourism services)
towards promotional initiatives and competitiveness
of a destination.
In this study, it was attempted to examine the
linkage between resources, marketing efforts, and
competitiveness in an UNESCO World Heritage Site
through the integration of competitiveness theory.
Subsequently, it adds to the development of the
theoretical framework, consisting of the
abovementioned constructs. Moreover, it contributes
to the expanding body of knowledge in identifying
the determining factors for ecotourism DC, via
obtaining a better understanding of destination core
resources (natural resources and cultural heritage
attraction) and supporting resources (tourism
infrastructure and quality of tourism services).
Besides, the cross-validated measures adapted from
the past studies (Azzopardi & Nash, 2016; Canny &
Hidayat, 2012; Dwyer & Kim, 2003; Enright &
Newton, 2005; Maroofi & Dehghan, 2012) have
demonstrated reliable and valid scores. As the present
study has proven these the consistency of these
measures, which signifies their usability in future
research and thereby contributing to the existing
literature.
This study also presents meaningful practical
insights for key tourism industry stakeholders,
comprised of the local governments, planners, policy
makers, and business operators on succeeding an
ecotourism destination. Following the gradually
fierce competition in the tourism market, it is
essential for destination managers to implement the
right tactic and strategy (Cosvi et al., 2019),
particularly in striking a delicate equilibrium
between sustaining and developing an ecotourism
destination. In the present statistical results, the
highest path coefficients were witnessed among the
constructs of cultural heritage attraction and tourism
infrastructure. Hence, it is wise for relevant
stakeholders such as MTCP Sarawak, to place
greater emphasis in providing continuous
maintenance and improvement on these elements.
Ultimately, the study underscores the importance of
effective strategies, particularly in driving
ecotourism development. Ensuring destination
sustainability hinges on the availability of accessible
destination resources for visitors. Therefore, these
findings can serve as a benchmark for competency,
providing valuable guidance to industry
stakeholders for effective management planning and
resource utilization. Additionally, these insights can
inform effective decision-making processes for
business operators, policymakers, and planners,
ensuring the thriving of ecotourism destinations.
Jun Zhou, Thong; May Chiun, Lo; Abang Azlan, Mohamad. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, Vol
14, No 1 (2024), pp. 1-22
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17
7. LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH
However, this study is also with its limitations.
First of all, the present study has primarily relied on
the samples drawn from the supply side
stakeholders. Particularly, the local industry players
who are based in Gunung Mulu National Park,
Sarawak, Malaysia. Subsequently, there may be
dissimilarities in perceptions for local communities
located in other ecotourism destinations, mainly due
to difference in experiences. This distinctiveness in
terms of cultural aspects may result in restricted
generalizability of the discoveries. Hence, by
incorporating diverse viewpoints from various
stakeholders, including tourism professionals,
locals, and visitors who have visited to the
ecotourism site, is essential for achieving more
unbiased outcomes and enhancing the
generalizability of the findings.
Also, the determination of causality may be
constrained, as the data was collected in a cross-
sectional manner, which gathers the feedback from
the same group of participants at one point in time
instead of over a longer period. Moreover, future
studies may incorporate potential variables, such as
locals’ self-efficacy, as the moderator into the
current solitary framework. This is because the local
industry players’ perceptions may be altered when
they are more confident in their capabilities,
particularly to partake in activities related to
sustainable destination development. Additionally,
future research may examine this model in other
ecotourism destinations, such as wildlife
sanctuaries, nature reserves, and Heritage Site, as
this study was done only at Gunung Mulu National
Park. This will potentially draw a dissimilar set of
results or aligned with the present study.
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