BIBLID [1699-3225 (2023) 27, 125-139] ISSN 1699-3225
27, 2023, 125-139 •
THE HOMERIC CHARITON
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
lpapadim@phil.uoa.gr
This study demonstrates that far from having
a mere ornamental function or from simply
serving as testimony to the author’s erudition,
the extracts from the Homeric poems
illuminate better certain developments in the
plot of Chariton’s novel or the psychology of
some of its characters by the juxtaposition of
the world of Callirhoe to those of the Iliad and
the Odyssey.
Chariton, Homer, Intertextuality.
Fecha de recepción: 16/08/2022
Fecha de aceptación y versión nal: 25/09/2022
Este estudio demuestra que lejos de tener
una mera función ornamental o de servir
simplemente como testimonio de la erudición
del autor, las citas de los poemas homéricos
iluminan mejor ciertos desarrollos en la
trama de la novela de Caritón o la psicología
de algunos de sus personajes mediante la
yuxtaposición del mundo de Calírroe a los de
la Ilíada y la Odisea.
Caritón, Homero, intertextualidad.
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More apparently and more frequently than any other Greek novelist, Chariton
cites extracts from the Homeric poems in a way that might seem disruptive to the
into the prose of his novel but retain their initial verse format. The studies that have
appeared so far on this subject either concentrate on Chariton’s citational practice
or touch upon the function of the quotations in the meaning of the text; the same
with by certain scholars, each of whom has usually explored the relevance of no
more than two Homeric quotations1. On the other hand, my study is comprehensive
and aims at demonstrating that far from having a mere ornamental function or from
simply serving as a testimony to the author’s erudition, these extracts illuminate
better certain developments of the novel’s plot or the psychology of some of its
1 Chariton’s citational practice has been studied by C.W. Müller, “Chariton von Aphrodisias und
die Theorie des Romans in der Antike”, A&A 22, 1976, 126-33; G. Manuwald, “Zitate als Mittel der
Erzählens – zur Darstellungstechnik Charitons in seinem Roman Kallirhoe”, WJA 24, 2000, 107-15;
M. Hirschberger, “Epos und Tragödie in Chariton’s Kallirhoe. Ein Beitrag zur Intertextualität des
Griechischen Romans”, WJA 25, 2001, 157-86; G. Esposito Vulgo Gigante, “Omero nel Romanzo di
Caritone”, in G. Indelli, G. Leone, F. Longo Auricchio, eds., Mathesis e Mneme: Studi in Memoria
di Marcello Gigante
Citation in Greek Narrative Texts”, in G. Bastianini, A. Casanova, eds., I Papiri del Romanzo Anti-
co, Firenze 2010,
romanzieri antichi”, Prometheus 39, 2013, 196-7. On the other hand, M. Fusillo, “Il testo nel testo:
la citatione nel romanzo greco”, MD 25, 1990, 32-42, M. Baumbach, “Paideia and the Function of
Homeric Quotations in Chariton’s Callirhoe”, in T.A. Schmitz, N. Wiater, eds., The Struggle for
Identity: Greeks and their Past in the First Century BCE, Stuttgart 2011, 253-71, É. Romieux-Brun,
“Chairéas à la lumière d’Achille: Chariton lecteur d’Homère”, in M. Briand, M. Biraud, eds., Roman
grec et poésie: Dialogues des genres et nouveaux enjeux du poétique, Lyon 2017 (available on the
Internet: https://books.openedition.org/momeditions/2300 [21 November 2021]), and A. da Silva
Duarte, “Que eu nâo morra sem luta e sem glória: as citaçôes da Ilíada em Quéreas e Calírroe”,
Classica 32, 2019, 181-94 touch upon the function of the quotations in the meaning of the text. Brief
and occasional examination of this subject can be found in G. Anderson, Ancient Fiction. The Novel
in the Greco-Roman World, London-Sydney 1984, 47, A. Billault La Création Romanesque dans la
Littérature Grecque à l’Époque ImpérialeSexual Symmetry. Love in
the Ancient Novel and Related Genres
dans le Roman Érotique Grec”, REAThe Myths of Fiction. Studies
in the Canonical Greek Novels, Ann Arbor 2004, 25-32, S.D. Smith, “Bakhtin and Chariton: A Re-
visionist Reading”, in R.B. Branham, ed., The Bakhtin Circle and Ancient Narrative, Eelde 2005,
184-6, J.R. Morgan, “Chariton”, in I.J.F. de Jong, R. Nünlist, eds., Time in Ancient Greek Literature,
Leiden 2007, 447-8, S.D. Smith, Greek Identity and Athenian Past in Chariton: The Romance of
Empire, Groningen 2007, 93-4, J.R. Morgan, “Intertextuality. The Greek Novel”, in T. Whitmarsh,
ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Greek and Roman Novel, Cambridge 2008, 219-20, and K.
De Temmerman, “How Ideal is the Oldest Ideal Greek Novel”, Mnemosyne 63, 2010, 474-5. Most of
not been able to consult Meander 21,
1966, 149-57, M. Biraud, “L’hypotexte homérique et les rôles amoureux de Callirhoé dans le roman
de Chariton”, in Sémiologie de l’amour dans les civilisations méditerranéennes, , 21-7,
and
R.F. Glei, C. Klodt, eds., “Homer zweiten Grades”. Zum Wirkungspotential eines Klassikers, Trier
2009, 81-104.
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characters by the juxtaposition of the world of Callirhoe to those of the Iliad and
the Odyssey, two works which formed the basis of ancient Greek education and
culture. It is the contention of this paper that the reader, ancient or modern, is
implicitly invited by Chariton to study his work in counterpoint to the two great
epics, to compare the situations and heroes he has created to the respective ones
order to better appreciate the intricacies of his own novel. In the course of this
paper I will examine the relevance of the Homeric quotes to Chariton’s narrative
and will trace the existing similarities between the immediate or broader context of
the verses cited to the scenes from Chariton’s novel, where they appear.
There is, however, one exception to this practice of Chariton. The formulaic
quotation appears three times
her upcoming wedding without knowing the identity of the groom (1.1.14), the
second when Chaereas sees in the shrine of Aphrodite in Ionia a golden statue
(4.5.9). Since variations of this expression are featured nine times in the Homeric
epics2, it is rather doubtful that Chariton intended to implicitly incite his readers
Iliad or the
Odyssey. The formulaic nature of this Homeric quotation most probably urges
us to surmise that it has a general meaning and that it simply refers to emotional
overload and/or despair. Moreover, the association with Homeric heroes increases
the solemnity of the characters of Chariton’s novel.
The rest of the Homeric quotations can roughly be divided into two categories:
and where awareness of the wider Homeric context can credibly be said to inform
our reading of Chariton’s text, that is quotations that refer to parallel situations
associating aspects of their character. It will be noticed that many quotations can be
what I consider to be their predominant characteristic or function. Let us begin
with the quotations denoting parallel situations.
After Callirhoe’s apparent death the robber Theron enters her tomb and
superintendent of a wealthy man, Leonas. The latter informs his master, Dionysius,
of Aphrodite, he mistakes her for the goddess of love, while Leonas hastens to
reveal to him that she is actually his slave. Dionysius chides him and is initially
unable to believe this (2.3.7), since, as Homer says:
2 Il. 21.104 and 21.425, Od. 4.703, 5.297, 5.406, 22.68, 22.147, 23.205 and 24.345.
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The extract is taken from a scene from the Odyssey, where the rest of the suitors
rebuke Antinous for hitting Odysseus, who had been disguised as a beggar, with
a stool (Od.
inferior social position, which they will subsequently reverse, gaining dominance
over their “masters”. As Odysseus will harm the suitors by killing them, so will
departure3; she will not even allow him to get married again in order to protect
the interests of her son (8.4.5). Moreover, by implicitly assimilating Leonas to
Antinous Chariton condemns his behavior towards Callirhoe; the heroine does not
deserve to be treated like a slave.
Callirhoe remains at the estate of Dionysius and later on discovers that she
is carrying Chaereas’ child. At the risk of giving birth to a slave she wonders
whether she should keep the child or have an abortion. Then an apparition of
Chaereas comes to her in her sleep, which is (2.9.6):
(Il.
bones together with his own. If we bear in mind that Chaereas entrusts his son to
Callirhoe in her dream (2.9.6), then we might surmise that the unborn baby will
ultimately ensure the union between the separated couple, instead of undermining
it, and will give to it a heroic undertone, which will extend even beyond their
death, as shall happen with the union of the two Iliadic comrades. Indeed, there
are multiple allusions and references in Chariton’s text to the future glory of the
famous ruler of Syracuse4. It has also been asserted by Naber that the novel serves
in fact as an aetion of Dionysius’ rule. In that case, the quotation might serve as an
implicit prolepsis of the couple’s undying fame through their descendant.
Meanwhile, back in Syracuse, Chaereas discovers that his beloved’s tomb
reveals the truth about Callirhoe. The Syracusans launch the general’s trireme and
Chaereas is about to depart for Ionia, when his mother begs him not to leave her
3 Dionysius characteristically employs the verb when he mourns his separation
from Callirhoe.
4
View”, AJPh 51, 1930, 102. On the contrary, M. Laplace, “Les Légendes Troyennes dans le «Ro-
man» de Chariton, Chairéas et Callirhoé”, REG 93, 1980, 120, believes that the son of Callirhoe
represents Aeneas.
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alone, but to put her on the boat. As she was saying this, she holds out her breast
and cites the following extract from the Iliad (3.5.6):
These words belong to Hecuba, who is asking Hector not to confront Achilles
outside the walls of Troy (Il. 22.82-3). The two mothers are obviously afraid for
their sons’ lives and Chariton probably wants to stress that this journey has many
indicate that the two heroes, Chaereas and Hector, are in a quest of their manhood
that disconnects them from any kind of dependence on their parents. The pursuit
will ultimately bring them glory.
D
the Syracusans’ journey and fears that his master will lose Callirhoe. So he urges
husband’s journey, but is misinformed that he is dead. Dionysius prompts her to
at her side and saying (4.1.3):
to bury him (Il. 23.71). Thus, the union of the primary couple assumes a heroic
with Callirhoe. At the same time, if we take into consideration Chaereas’ initial
inaccurate and so the writer stresses the falsity of Chaereas’ death.
works as a slave. Later on, the hero is recognized by the satrap, who informs him
about Callirhoe’s wedding and her child. Mithridates prompts Chaereas to write a
Dionysius or, as he says (4.4.5):
The verse is taken from a scene in the Odyssey, in which Athena incites
Telemachus to return to Ithaca (Od. 15.21); she tells him that the suitor
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Eurymachus has surpassed all the other suitors with his presents and perhaps
him, since it is Chaereas she loves. Furthermore, in both cases the verse serves as
a false alarm intended to prompt the hero to action.
Chaereas’ letter falls into the hands of Dionysius, who erroneously thinks that
King. Artaxerxes, in his turn, summons Mithridates and Dionysius, along with
Callirhoe, to Babylon in order to try their case. The day of the trial has arrived and
the king takes his place on the throne. On either side sit his friends, the “leaders
of the leaders”, and around the throne stand captains and commanders, so that one
might say that (5.4.6):
The verse is used to describe the beginning of the gods’ council after the
Il.
the subsequent verbal sparring between Dionysius and Chaereas, when both of
them claim to be the rightful husband of Callirhoe (5.7.5-6). The line might even
Egyptian war that will break out later on. And it is this war that will determine to
whom the heroine truly belongs. In any case, some kind of confrontation between
Callirhoe’s two husbands is foreshadowed. In addition, by likening Artaxerxes to
Zeus Chariton underlines the power he holds over this matter; indeed, the king
will consider it proper to arbitrate over who should legally possess Callirhoe.
The night before the trial queen Stateira wishes to get rid of Callirhoe, while
king Artaxerxes stays awake and is sad because he will not have the opportunity
is how his sleeplessness is described (6.1.8):
The cited verses refer to Achilles’ inability to sleep because he cannot get
Il. 24.10-11). After Zeus’ intervention the best of the
lose Callirhoe anyway, no matter what he does. The postponement of the trial to a
certain extent corresponds with the mistreatment of Hector’s corpse: both provide
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become theirs; both will eventually come to an end by divine intervention; both
are acts of despair and denial of loss.
The pretext that Artaxerexes uses to postpone the trial is that the gods had
(6.2.4):
of Apollo’s wrath, which was due to Agamemnon’s disrespect for Chryses’
supplication to ransom his daughter (Il. 1.317). Just as Apollo’s wrath leads to
the strife between Agamemnon and Achilles, so the postponement of the trial
is going to result in the participation of Chaereas in the Egyptian revolt; as
Achilles will gain glory because of this strife, so Chaereas will emulate the hero’s
glory by his martial exploits. Consequently, both Apollo’s intervention and the
destiny. Finally, the strife between the two Achaean leaders had begun because
of a woman, Briseis; similarly, Chaereas and Dionysius will participate in the
Egyptian war because of Callirhoe.
Artaxerxes reveals his love for Callirhoe to the eunuch Artaxates, but soon
realizes that in succumbing to his passion he betrays his principles. Following
Artaxates’ suggestion he tries to divert himself by going hunting. But even then
he brings to his mind Callirhoe (6.4.6):
In these verses it is Nausicaa who is compared to Artemis just before her meeting
with Odysseus (Od. 6.102-4). If we bear in mind the fact that when Odysseus
addresses Alcinous’ daughter he tells her that the man who will have her will be
fortunate (6.158-9), then Chariton stresses once again Callirhoe’s godlike beauty.
Artaxerxes is not going to acquire Callirhoe but will “return” to his wife, Stateira.
has been
The Egyptian revolt breaks out and Chaereas joins the Egyptian forces with
his chosen comrades against Tyre, keeping them closely massed, so that one could
say (7.4.3):
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This line is used twice in the Iliad
dangerously their enemies’ ships and the Achaeans are lined up for battle after
Il. 13.131). If Chariton incites his readers to compare
impact on his soldiers resembles that of a god; so powerful it is. In the second case,
the verse is used when the Myrmidons prepare for battle (Il.
who leads them, will get killed. If the author alludes to this incident, then a martial
success is presaged; as the Trojans will be pushed back from the Achaean ships,
death and Tyre’s capture; as the former event incites Achilles to return to battle,
that it is precisely due to Tyre’s capture that Artaxerxes decides to leave the
women and the children on the island of Arados (7.4.11-12). We must also take
into consideration that in the broader Iliadic context of this citation it is Achilles
who encourages his soldiers for the ensuing battle; thus, the parallelism stresses
Nearly all of the Homeric quotations that evoke parallel situations have a
proleptic function, foreshadowing certain developments in the plot of Chariton’s
novel. In the quotations which establish certain analogies between the Homeric
characters and the protagonists of Chariton’s romance both Chaereas and
Challirhoe are compared with multiple heroes. It is as if the narrator consciously
puts them through their trials and tribulations in a constant search for their identity.
Let us now turn to this second group of quotations which link the characters of
Chariton’s novel to those of the Homeric epics.
Near the beginning of the novel the marriage of Chaereas and Callirhoe incites
the vindictive rage of her failed suitors, who instruct an old man to tell Chaereas
that his wife is unfaithful to him, in order to avenge her loss. This is Chaereas’
reaction when he hears the news (1.4.6):
death (Il. 18.22-4). It seems that something dies in Chaereas’ soul, something vital,
an ideal which gives meaning to his whole existence, judging from his willingness
to die as soon as he hears the news (1.4.7). For him, who is an erotic and not a
traditionally epic hero, the loss of his love is equal to death5. In both cases the news
5 However, M. Sanz Morales and G. Laguna Mariscal, “The Relationship Between Achilles and
CQ 53, 2003, 293 are right in treating this passage
-
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creates a decisive turn in the works’ plots; in the case of Chariton’s novel they will
actually lead to Callirhoe’s apparent death; and this happens precisely because
Chaereas shares Achilles’ most distinctive characteristic, the characteristic which
sets the plot of the Iliad on its course, his irascibility6. Chaereas’ irascibility will
inaugurate the adventures that the primary couple will go through and that will
Achilles with Hector, which will grant eternal glory to the best of the Achaeans.
After the news of Chaereas’ supposed death, Dionysius objects to his
wife’s wish to build the tomb near Aphrodite’s shrine and proposes to construct
an imposing and conspicuous memorial in the city instead (4.1.5):
This is what Agamemnon says to Achilles about his tomb, when they are
conversing in the Underworld (Od.
with Achilles. Certain points of the comparison between Agamemnon and
Achilles contained in Agamemnon’s speech are valid in the case of Chaereas too:
the hero is loved by the gods, in particular Aphrodite, and his glory will withstand
the passage of time. In addition, if we bear in mind that Agamemnon’s speech to
Achilles is concluded with his regret at having been murdered by his wife and
Aegisthus, the quotation might even presage Dionysius’ incapacity to hold onto
his wife.
Intending to attend their trial both Dionysius and Mithridates arrive at Babylon,
but the latter forbids Chaereas, who had traveled with him, to try to see Callirhoe
or make any inquiry about her. Chaereas consents, but, when he returns to his
As we have seen, the verses describe Achilles’ reaction when he learns about
Il. 18.23-4). The hero’s forced inability to see his beloved is
likened to an experience of death; so intense are his feelings for her. Thus, to
Chaereas Callirhoe is a source of life, something which is repeatedly underlined
throughout the narrative by his multiple attempts at suicide when he is under the
erotic and at asserting that the author establishes a clear parallel between the two couples Achil-
6 Cf. Hirschberger, “Epos und Tragödie”, 169 and Romieux-Brun, “Chairéas”. On the other hand,
da Silva Duarte (“Que eu nâo morra…”, 184) stresses Chaereas’ impulsiveness as his common fea-
ture with Achilles.
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impression that he will not see her again. Moreover, their relationship takes on a
After the Great King’s decision that he will judge who Callirhoe’s rightful
husband is, Chaereas wants – once again – to commit suicide because his beloved
did not approach and kiss him in court and because he thinks that Dionysius will
prevail. In what seems to be his ultima verba he includes a Homeric quotation
(5.10.9):
7 soon after the killing of
Hector (Il. 22.389-90). Dying for his love is equal for Chaereas to the grandest
martial exploit which brings undying glory. This kind of attitude may be termed
belongs from Homeric epic poetry and its concomitant values: for Chaereas the
(5.10.8). The self is completely annihilated before the ideal of love.
While Artaxerxes has succumbed to his love for Callirhoe and his eunuch
tries to convince her to yield to the king’s passion, the Egyptian revolt breaks
out. Dionysius campaigns with the king’s forces and Callirhoe is brought along
with the women and children who follow them. When Chaereas searches her in
Dionysius’ residence, a man instructed by Dionysius misinforms him that the king
has promised Callirhoe to him in order to secure his services in the war. Following
his friend’s suggestion, Chaereas joins the Egyptian forces with him in order to
avenge Callirhoe’s loss. In his speech to the Egyptian king, to whom he declares
his determination, Chaereas cites (7.2.4) two verses from the Iliad:
These words belong to Hector just before his duel with Achilles (Il. 22.304-5);
the Trojan hero understands that Athena, who had been previously disguised as his
cousin Deiphobus, has deceived him and realizes that the gods have forsaken him.
Thinking that he has lost Callirhoe, Chaereas considers himself almost dead and,
consequently, chooses to identify with a doomed hero. However, he misconstrues
his identity; he is Achilles, not Hector, while the gods have not abandoned him.
His grief at the apparent loss of his beloved prevents him from perceiving reality
in the right way.
Chaereas quickly rises in the ranks of the Egyptian army and becomes the
pharaoh’s advisor. At a council he urges him not to give up on the conquest of
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Tyre and promises to him that he will conquer the city with the help of a few
soldiers, since (7.3.5):
Diomedes uses similar words to oppose Agamemnon’s wish to return home
without conquering Troy (Il. 9.48-9). The situations are parallel; we are certain that,
like Troy, the city of Tyre will fall. More importantly, there is a shift in Chaereas’
with one of the most prominent warriors of the Achaeans, putting himself on the
for the army’s moral as that of Diomedes8.
As Chaereas and his comrades approach the walls of Tyre, they are asked by
the Tyrians who they are and what they want. Chaereas replies that they are Greek
mercenaries who have defected from the pharaoh and want to join them; when
(7.4.6):
This verse appears three times in the Homeric epics. It is applied to the
killing of the suitors by Odysseus (Od. 22.308), to Diomedes’ and Odysseus’
attack against the Thracian soldiers of Rhesus (Il. 10.483), and to Achilles’ attack
Il. 21.20). I think that in all probability
Chariton invites us to compare his scene with the last occurrence of the line. In
an association which is enhanced by the lion simile used immediately after by
similarly, Chaereas’ valor is due to the perceived loss of Callirhoe. However, we
cannot preclude associations with the former two occurrences, since not only has
Chaereas manifested a resourcefulness similar to that of Odysseus, but also his
dolos might suggest that of the Doloneia.
The Egyptian revolt has ended. Not knowing that Chaereas has decided to
send back his wife to him, Artaxerxes learns from a messenger that Arados has
8 Hirschberger, “Epos und Tragödie”, 171, also notes that the passage illustrates the great argu-
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The verse is used when the slave women, following Briseis, who has been
given back to Achilles after his reconciliation with Agamemnon, cry over the
Il.
with Achilles9
– similarly to Agamemnon – the latter had deprived the protagonist of what he
ranked, are essentially slaves.
Having examined Chaereas’ implicit psychological evolution through the
Homeric quotations we may now turn to Callirhoe.
Dionysius erroneously thinks that Chaereas’ letter had been written by
his turn, summons Mithridates and Dionysius, along with Callirhoe, to Babylon
in order to try their case. As Dionysius is traveling to Babylon, Rumor announces
to everybody the arrival of Callirhoe, “the masterpiece of Nature”, who is (4.7.5):
The verse is used twice in the Odyssey
Sparta (Od. 17.37), while in the second case her comparison to the two goddesses
occurs just before hearing from the disguised Odysseus that her husband will
return (Od.
– at least for the heroine – reunion. In both situations from the Odyssey the hero
has already returned to his homeland10, but his arrival remains unknown to his
wife; similarly Callirhoe is not yet aware that Chaereas is alive and cannot
possibly imagine that she will see him again at Babylon. The element of surprise
son to return, since he was ambushed by the suitors.
In Babylon, after Mithridates’ demand Dionysius is forced to bring
Callirhoe with him to the king’s court. A crowd is gathered to marvel at her
beauty. When she enters the courtroom, Chariton likens her to Helen and cites a
verse which refers to the latter’s intervention at the Scaean gates, from where she
Il. 3.146):
9
for the Stateira’s enslavement.
10
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Immediately after that the author quotes a line from the Odyssey, which is used
the Achaeans because it reminds her of her husband, whom she has not forgotten
(Od. 1.366), while in the second, Athena makes her more beautiful in order to
appear more precious to her husband and son (Od. 18.213); the intention of
disguised Odysseus and the beggar Iros. Callirhoe, then, is both a Helen and a
11
the complex situation she has found herself in renders her a Helen, oscillating
as she does in her preferences between Chaereas and Dionysius; consequently,
when the queen later on asks her which husband she prefers, Callirhoe remains
enigmatically silent (5.9.7). Because of her a “war” will erupt between her two
husbands12. In any case and more than anything else, it is her beauty which is
stressed, an attribute which certainly renders her more valuable to her two husbands
adventures to each other, Chaereas and Callirhoe (8.1.17):
Od. 23.296) and is
considered by certain philologists to be the end of the Odyssey13. Similarly to
her absolution from the ethical blame of her second marriage. On the other hand,
Chaereas has admittedly shown a resourcefulness similar to that of Odysseus,
especially in the conquest of Tyre, and has regained his wife due to his martial
merit. However, it might be also implied that, like Odysseus, more “adventures”
await him in the future; at the end of the narrative it becomes evident that Chaereas
will have an illustrious political career in Syracuse14.
11 Cf. Fusillo, “Il Testo”, 41 and Morgan, “Intertextuality”, 220. On Chariton’s reworking of the
Mythological Narratives.
The Bold and Faithful Heroines of the Greek Novels, Berlin-Boston 2018, 204-29.
12 Cf. Manuwald, “Zitate”, 112.
13 As Gigante, “Omero”, 194, remarks. He also hypothesizes that Chariton might have had an
edition of the Odyssey that ended with this verse.
14 And although Odysseus’ further adventures take him away from Ithaca, it might not be incon-
ceivable that in his new political role Chaereas will often have to be sent away from Syracuse as an
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I have examined the quotations of full lines from Homer, where the form of
Homeric passage is quoted very soon after another or if an unusually long gap
separates quotations. For example, in the seventh book where the heroic exploits
of Chaereas during the Egyptian revolt are narrated there is an increased density
of Iliadic quotations (7.2.4, 7.3.5 and 7.4.3), while there is no quotation at all
when Callirhoe’s status is demoted, as she is captured and sold as slave by Theron
and his pirates (from 1.4.6 to 2.3.7). Generally speaking, Homeric quotations are
employed by the novelist to the characters whose status he wishes to elevate, not
Moreover, as we have seen, all of the extracts from the Homeric epics are
more or less relevant to the novel’s scenes in which they are quoted. I think that
Chariton often invites us to take into account the broader context of the quotations
and to discern their analogies with his narrative15. Most of the times their function
is proleptic; by the parallelisms that they urge us to make they presage certain
events to come. Furthermore, they render the two protagonists more solemn by
associating them with famous characters from the two epics, like Achilles and
16. This association is also applied in order to mark their psychological
evolution: while Callirhoe initially oscillates between the attributes of a Helen
of the latter; similarly, in his despair Chaereas poses as a Hector, he develops into
a Diomedes and ends up as an Achilles, with whom he had been compared at the
beginning of the novel17. Finally, it must be noted that this kind of intertextuality,
ages18 and their synergy in the production of meaning is not usual. The reader is
implicitly encouraged to compare the various situations of Chariton’s narrative
with the immediate or broader context of the quotations from the Homeric epics
and to add an extra semantic layer by tracing the similarities, as well as the
emissary of his city-state.
15 Consequently, I disagree with Robiano, “La Citation”, and Cueva, The Myths, 29, who main-
tain that most of the quotations may be generally considered as decorative in Chariton’s narrative.
16 Billault, La Création
d’Homère, puisque c’est le «divin poète» qui décrit son emotion”.
17
-
18 This juxtaposition is open because the verse format of the Homeric quotations disrupts the
prose which predominates in almost the entirety of Chariton’s narrative. In addition, the language
of the quotations belongs to a much earlier phase of linguistic development than that of the prose.
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19. Needless to say, that an
erudite reader, or at least someone who is more than familiar with the Homeric
texts, is needed for such a technique to work20.
19
Xenophon, Menander) should be viewed. According to Romieux-Brun, “Chairéas”, “le romancier
semble utiliser l’œuvre d’Homère... pour mettre en évidence la nouveauté du roman”.
20 This observation might contribute to the question of Chariton’s readership; I think that it was
his intention that his novel be read also by scholars. Cf. T. Hägg, “Orality, literacy and the «reader-
ship» of the early Greek novel”, in R. Eriksen, ed., Contexts of Pre-Novel Narrative. The European
Tradition, Berlin-New York 1994, 53. Manuwald, “Zitate”, 119, is right in maintaining that the cor-
respondence of the quotes to their original texts is not necessary for the understanding of the novel,
something which enables the less educated reader to enjoy the love story without any problems.
However, it must be noted that only an experienced scholar, who would be more than familiar with
the entirety of the Iliad and the Odyssey, would be able to trace the exact context of every single
Homeric quotation. Finally, I would like to thank the anonymous referees of ExClass for their helpful
suggestions.
